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RIAL  and  PERSONAL 


RECAP 


HYGIENE 


)ty  GEO.  M.  KOBER,  M.  D.,  LL.  D. 


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INDUSTRIAL  AND  PERSONAL 


HYGIENE 


BY 
GEORGE  M.  KOBER,  M.  D.,  LL.D. 

Chairman  of  the  Committee  on  Social  Betterment  of  the  President's   Homes 

Commission,  Professor  of  Hygiene,  School  of  Medicine, 

Georgetown  University 


A  REPORT  OF  THE  COMMITTEE  ON  SOCIAL  BETTERMENT 


PUBLISHED   BY 

THE  PRESIDENT'S  HOMES  COMMISSION 

WASHINGTON,    D.  C. 

1908 


The  President's  Homes  Commission, 

Appointed  by  President  Theodore  Roosevelt 

President. 
General  Geo.  M.  Sternberg 

Secretary 
George  M.  Kober 


Assistant  Secretary 
H.  C.  Macatee 

Treasurer 
John  B.  Sleman,  Jr. 


i»- 


Statistician 
Gustavus  A.  Weber 

Executive  Secretary 
Charles  F.  Weller 

Executive    Committee 
Geo.  M.  Sternberg,  Chairman 
Geo.  M.  Kober 
Wm.  H.  Baldwin 
Frederick  L.  Siddons 
S.  W.  Woodward 
Miss  Mabel  T.  Boardman 

Social  Betterment  Committee 
Geo.    M.    Kober,    Chairman 
James  B.  Reynolds 
Wm.  F.  Downey 
Whitefield  McKinlay 
Emmett  L.  Adams 
Mrs.  Thomas  T.  Gaff 
Miss  Mabel  T.  Boardman 


K^ 
^ 


v 


TABLE  OF  CONTENTS. 


I'agc. 
PART   [.—INDUSTRIAL    HYGIENE 9 

Introduction    9 

Occupations  and  Mortality 10 

Morbidity  and  Mortality  of   Wage-Earners 12 

Indoor   Occupations    15 

Occupations  Involving  Exposure  to   Irritating  Dust 16 

Metallic  and  Mineral  Dust 18 

Vegetable    Dust    22 

Textile  Industries    23 

Animal  Dust   28 

Occupations  Involving  Exposure  to  Infective  Matter  in  Dust 29 

Rag,  Paper,  Wool  and  Hair  Industry 29 

Occupations  Involving  Exposure  to  Poisonous  Dust — Lead  Dust 31 

The  Lead  Industry  in  Massachusetts 33 

Printers,  Type  Founders  and  Typesetters 35 

Arsenical  Dust   39 

Occupations  Involving  Exposure  to  Irritating  or  Poisonous  Gases  or  Vapors.  40 

Sulphur   Dioxide    40 

Hydrochloric   Acid    41 

Sulphuric  and  Nitric  Acid 42 

Ammonia    42 

Chlorine  Gas   43 

Bleaching  Establishments    43 

Iodine  and  Bromine  Vapors 43 

Turpentine    44 

Petroleum     44 

Benzine  Vapors    44 

Carbon   Monoxide    45 

Carbonic  Acid  Gas   45 

Carbon   Disulphide    45 

Naphtha     46 

Nitrobenzol    46 

Dyeing  and  Cleansing   46 

Rubber   Industry    47 

Patent    Leather    Industry 47 


IV. 


Page. 


Aniline   Vapor    47 

Wood   Alcohol    48 

Chrome   Pigments    49 

Quinine    49 

Manganese     49 

Brass    Founders     49 

Arsenical   Fumes    5° 

Mercury     5° 

Phosphorus     51 

Beet-Sugar    Industry    52 

Occupations  Involving  Exposure  to  Extremes  of  Heat,  Sudden  Changes,  and 

Abnormal  Atmospheric  Pressure   52 

Caisson   Disease    53 

Occupations  Involving  Constrained  Attitudes 54 

Occupations  Involving  Over  Exercise  of  Parts  of  the  Body 54 

Occupations  Involving  Exposure  to  Machinery,  etc 55 

Coal    Mining    56 

Railway  Service   59 

Railway   Accidents    60 

Accidents   and   Injuries    61 

Occupations  Involving  the  Inhalation  of  Organic  Gases  and  Vapors 63 

Employment  of  Women  and  Children 64 

Infant  Mortality  in  Relation  to  the  Occupation  of  Women . . .  .* 68 

Special  Measures  for  the  Prevention  of  Tuberculosis  Among  Wage-Earners.  71 

Measures  for  the  Protection  of  Wage-Earners 72 

Sanitation  of  Workshops  and  Quarters  for  Employees 73 

Cubic  Air-Space  and  Amount  of  Fresh  Air  per  Hour 74 

Ventilation     75 

Temperature    78 

Humidity  of  the   Air 79 

Lighting     80 

Artificial  Light    81 

Prevention  of  Accidents   ". 82 

Miscellaneous   Sanitary   Provisions    83 

Lodging  Houses  and  Sleeping  Quarters 85 

Permanent    Expositions    Devoted   to    Industrial    and    Social    Betterment    of 

Wage-Earners   85 

What  the  Federal  Government  May  Do  for  the  Promotion  of  the  Welfare 

of  its  Employees 86 

German  Workingmen's   Insurance   System 87 

What  the  Employer  May  Do  for  the  Welfare  of  Employees 93 

What  the  General  Public  May  Do 95 

What  the  Employee  May  Do  to  Contribute  to  His  Own  Welfare 101 

PART   II— PERSONAL   HYGIENE 101 

Care  of  Special  Organs  or  Parts  of  the  Body 113 

Appendix    A — Health    of  Employees    in    the    Government    Printing    Office, 

Washington     116 

APPENDIX.— REGULATION  OF  DANGEROUS    TRADES    IN    ENG- 
LAND     125 


Washington,  D.  C. 

February  /\,  kjoH. 

To  General  George  M.  Sternberg, 

Surgeon-General  U.  S.  A.  (Retired), 

Chairman  of  the  President's  Homes  Commission, 

Washington,  D.  C. 

Sir — The  Committee  on  Social  Betterment  finds  it  difficult,  if  not 
impossible,  to  elaborate  plans  for  the  amelioration  of  present  standards 
of  living  among  the  least  resourceful  people  without  a  full  considera- 
tion of  the  relations  of  certain  occupations  to  the  health  of  those 
engaged  therein.  The  question  of  health  is  intimately  connected  with 
the  physical,  social  and  moral  welfare  of  the  human  race  and  plays 
an  important  role  in  the  prosperity  of  countless  numbers  of  our  fellow 
beings,  whose  only  income  is  the  product  of  their  daily  labor.  It  will 
be  readily  conceded  that  health  is  the  chief  asset  of  the  workingman, 
and  that  no  greater  calamity  can  befall  him  than  when  his  earning 
capacity  is  impaired,  or  arrested,  by  reason  of  sickness  or  disability. 
It  means,  in  many  instances,  the  utter  financial  ruin  of  the  family  and 
is  doubtless  one  of  the  most  potent  causes  of  want  and  poverty.  The 
truth  of  this  statement  is  being  more  and  more  appreciated,  and  well 
directed  efforts  are  being  made  everywhere  to  prevent,  as  far  as 
possible,  the  fundamental  causes  of  poverty  and  distress.  In  this  the 
medical  profession  has  been  a  helpmate  to  religion.  Men  who  come 
in  daily  contact  with  sickness  and  distress  can  not  fail  to  experience 
deep  sympathy  for  their  fellow  men,  which  is  all  the  more  profound 
when  they  realize  that  many  of  the  diseases  are  preventable,  and  much 
of  this  terrible  suffering  cruelly  unnecessary.  These  tender  feelings 
inspired  by  a  desire  to  render  a  service  to  humanity  have  stimulated 
into  existence  a  science  which  has  for  its  object  not  only  the  promotion 
and  preservation  of  health,  but  also  the  prevention  of  disease. 

In  the  search  for  the  causes  and  prevention  of  diseases  the  interests 
of  the  wage-earners  have  not  been  neglected  ;  indeed,  it  may  be  truly 
said  that  a  special  department  has  been  created,  known  as  Industrial 
Hygiene  or  Social  Medicine,  with  a  most  complete  and  satisfactory 
literature  of  its  own.  German  authors,  in  1897,  issued  a  volume  of 
over  1,200  pages,  and  English  authors,  under  the  editorship  of  Dr. 
Thomas  Oliver,  devoted  891  pages  to  "Dangerous  Trades" — "The 
Historical.   Social   and   Legal   Aspects   of   Industrial   Occupations   as 


8 

Affecting  Health."  The  writer,  during  his  visit  to  Berlin  in  September, 
1907,  met  Dr.  E.  J.  Neisser,  who  had  just  completed  an  "International 
Review  of  Industrial  Hygiene,"  covering  a  volume  of  352  printed 
pages.  Dr.  Neisser  deplored  his  inability  to  present  a  general  review 
of  the  work  accomplished  in  the  United  States  for  the  promotion  of 
the  welfare  of  the  wage-earners,  since,  with  the  exception  of  the 
reports  of  the  Inspector  of  New  Jersey,  no  recent  data  concerning  fac- 
tory sanitation  were  available  for  publication.  Realizing  the  import- 
ance of  the  subject,  not  only  to  wage-earners,  but  to  all  interested  in 
the  conditions  under  which  our  fellow  men  and  women  live  and  work, 
an  effort  has  been  made  in  the  succeeding  pages  to  supply  this 
information. 

It  is,  indeed,  a  feeble  attempt  towards  amelioration  of  existing 
conditions,  when  compared  with  the  monumental  volumes  of  German 
and  English  authors.  The  writer  acknowledges  his  indebtedness  to 
Dr.  Neisser  for  the  inspiration  given  him  by  his  own  good  and 
unselfish  work,  and  also  to  all  authors  consulted  by  him,  and  to  whom 
credit  is  given  in  the  text. 

It  is  hoped  that  this  study  of  the  causes  of  sickness  and  the  means 
of  promoting  industrial  efficiency  and  earning  power,  will  fill  one  of 
the  obligations  which  your  Committee  assumed  to  discharge. 
Respectfully  submitted, 

George  M.  Kober. 


INDUSTRIAL  AND    PERSONAL    HYGIENE 


HY  GEORGE   M.    KOI'.KR,    M.    I). 


Part  I— INDUSTRIAL  HYGIENE. 

INTRODUCTION. 

One  of  the  most  interesting  and  beneficent  subdivisions  of  hygiene 
is  a  study  of  the  relations  of  occupations  to  health  and  longevity.  The 
necessity  for  devoting  special  attention  to  this  subject  was  shown  long 
ago  by  observations  that  certain  occupations  and  trades  are  dangerous 
to  health,  and  hence  in  the  interest  of  wage-earners  and  the  public  at 
large  it  is  clearly  desirable  to  study  these  relations,  to  determine  the 
sources  and  significance  of  the  dangers,  and  the  possible  means  for  the 
prevention  or  the  mitigation  of  the  injurious  effects. 

A  pioneer  study  was  made  by  Professor  Ramazzini,  of  Padua,  as 
early  as  1700,  and  his  monograph  was  translated  into  English  in  1705, 
and  also  into  French  in  1777. 

In  1810  the  French  Government  issued  a  decree  relating  to  "etab- 
lissements  dangereaux,  insalubres  et  incommodes,"  and  in  181 5  the 
English  Parliament  instituted  a  commission  to  inquire  into  the  con- 
dition of  factories,  etc.  In  1822  Mr.  C.  Turner  Thackrah,  of  Leeds, 
wrote  a  monograph  "On  the  Effects  of  the  Arts,  Trades,  and  Profes- 
sions, and  of  Civic  States  and  Habits  of  Living  on  Health  and  Longev- 
ity." In  1833  and  1865  the  English  Parliament  again  appointed  com- 
missioners, and  in  1839  the  "Academie  des  sciences  morales  et  politiques 
de  France,"  and  subsequently  Bavaria,  Prussia,  and  the  German 
Empire  directed  similar  investigations.  As  a  result  of  these  efforts 
and  numerous  independent  investigations,  it  is  known  today  that  per- 
sons habitually  engaged  in  hard  work,  especially  in  factories  and 
indoors,  present  a  greater  amount  of  sickness  and  higher  mortality 
than  persons  more  favorably  situated,  and  that  the  character  of  the 
occupations  influences  to  a  great  extent  not  only  the  average  expecta- 
tion of  life,  but  also  the  prevalence  of  certain  diseases. 

It  is  known,  for  example,  that  bronchitis,  pneumonia,  and  tubercu- 
losis are  much  more  frequent  in  dust-inhaling  occupations,  and  that 
the  sharp  angular  particles  of  iron  and  stone  dust  are  more  liable  to 
produce  injury  of  the  respiratory  passages  than  coal,  flour,  grain,  and 


IO 


other  kinds  of  dust.  It  is  also  known  that  workers  in  lead,  mercury, 
arsenic,  phosphorus,  poisonous  dyes,  etc.,  suffer  especially  from  the 
injurious  effects,  and  that  other  occupations,  such  as  mining,  railroad- 
ing, and  those  which  necessitate  working  with  or  around  moving 
machinery  involve  special  danger  to  life  and  limb. 

For  these  reasons  workers  in  many  industries  need  special  protec- 
tion, and  in  order  to  render  this  efficient  it  must  be  provided  for  by 
the  enactment  and  enforcement  of  suitable  laws.  In  1833,  1864,  1867, 
and  1870,  England  enacted  the  so-called  "factory  laws."  France 
provided  a  child  labor  law  in  1841  and  in  1874  a  more  satisfactory 
labor  code.  Germany  and  other  continental  governments  enacted 
suitable  legislation  between  1859  and  1886. 

According  to  Miss  S.  S.  Whittelsey's  "Essay  on  Massachusetts 
Labor  Legislation,"  child  labor  received  attention  in  Massachusetts  as 
early  as  1836.  The  first  law  as  regards  safety  and  sanitation  was 
enacted  in  that  State  in  1877,  since  which  time  all  the  States  and  Terri- 
tories have  enacted  some  form  of  labor  or  factory  laws. 

OCCUPATIONS    AND    MORTALITY. 

According  to  the  United  States  Census  for  1900,  of  360,739  males, 
ten  years  of  age  and  over,  dying  in  the  United  States  during  the 
census  year,  278,147,  or  J7%,  were  reported  as  having  a  gainful  occu- 
pation. Of  females,  ten  years  of  age  and  over,  there  were  324,075 
deaths  and  45,491,  or  14%,  were  reported  as  having  a  gainful  occupa- 
tion. In  the  aggregate  the  table  on  page  cclx  gives  information  as  to 
the  mortality  by  occupations  for  5,575,745  males  and  1,587,874  females. 

The  death  rates  by  occupation  groups  are  as  follows : 


Occupation — Males. 


All  occupations 

Professional    

Clerical   and   official 

Mercantile  and  Trading 

Public  entertainment   

Personal  service,  police  and  military 

Laboring  and  servant 

Manufacturing  and  mechanical   industry 

Agriculture,     transportation     and     other     out 

door    pursuits    

All  other  occupation 

Females. 

All    occupations , 

Nurses   and   midwives • 

Servants    


Population 


5.575,745 
203,104 
424,781 
493,994 
87,888 
149,164 
800,893 

1,796,928 

I,S28,24I 

90,662 


1,587.874 

41,912 
403,801 


Deaths. 


83,815 
3,109 
5-7i6 
6,000 
i,35o 
i,93i 
16,158 
24,769 

24,196 
586 


J3.203 

397 

6,920 


Death  Rate. 
1900.       1890 


15.0 
»5-3 
13-5 
12. 1 
15-4 
12.9 
20.2 
13.8 

15-8 
6-5 


8.3 
9-5 

17. 1 


13-8 
15-7 
9.8 
12.3 
M-S 
15-4 
22.6 
13-0 


10.5 
11. 2 
18.3 


Each  of  the  eight  large  groups  of  occupations  is  subdivided,  and 
detailed  information  is  given  in  sixty  specified  groups  of  employment 


II 

for  males,  and  in  fourteen  groups  for  females,  of  which  we  have  pro 
duced  only  two  for  females,  on  account  of  their  high  death  rate. 

Unfortunately  we  have  no  reliable  occupation  mortality  statistics 
and  never  will  have,  until  greater  attention  is  given  this  suhject  hy 
health  officials  and  the  Census  Bureau. 

In  view  of  the  importance  of  the  suhject  and  the  tendency  elsewhere 
towards  a  more  detailed  classification  and  information  for  industl 
and  trades,  Mr.  Frederick  L.  Hoffman  '  says:  "It  was  reasonably  to  be 
expected  that  the  Census  report  of  1900  would  materially  increase  the 
number  of  specific  occupations  dealt  with  in  the  section  discussing  the 
relation  of  occupation  to  mortality,  but  instead  of  89  employments 
discussed  in  the  Census  of  1890,  only  60  are  dealt  with  in  detail  in  the 
Census  of  1900.  To  make  this  matter  worse,  the  details  are  not  given 
in  the  fundamental  tables,  but  a  vast  majority  of  heterogeneous  employ- 
ments are  grouped  in  a  purely  arbitrary  manner,  filling  space  to  no 
advantage,  and  resulting  in  conclusions  of  no  practical  value." 

He  very  properly  objects  to  grouping  together  miners  and  quarry- 
men,  because  according  to  the  Census  of  1890  the  comparative  mortal- 
ity figure  of  quarrymen  was  469,  while  that  for  miners  was  given  as 
1,127;  "and  to  combine  two  such  unlike  occupations  is  the  mere  pro- 
duction of  a  figure  which  has  absolutely  no  determining  value,  but 
the  use  of  which  must  lead  to  false  and  mischievous  conclusions." 
For  like  reason  he  objects  to  the  grouping  together  of  fishermen,  oyster- 
men,  sailors  and  pilots,  which  he  very  properly  regards  as  three  well- 
defined  groups  of  employment.  The  mortality  figure  in  the  Census  of 
1890  for  fishermen  and  oystermen  was  543,  for  pilots  it  was  630  and 
for  sailors  2,276.  Many  other  combinations  of  employments,  such  as 
hotel  keepers  and  boarding-house  keepers,  or  saloon  keepers  with 
restaurant  keepers  are  objectionable,  as  it  does  not  enable  the  student 
of  social  questions  to  determine  the  effects  of  alcohol  upon  longevity. 
If,  for  example,  restaurant  keepers,  who  very  generally  do  not  engage 
in  the  liquor  traffic,  had  not  been  combined  with  saloon  keepers,  bar- 
tenders, etc.,  the  death  rate  of  this  group  might  not  be  so  favorable 
but  be  more  in  accordance  with  the  excessive  mortality  rates  observed 
in  this  class  in  other  countries.  Mr.  Hoffman  points  out  that  during 
the  five  years  1891-1895,  during  a  condition  of  peace,  the  death  rate  of 
the  U.  S.  Army  was  6.6  per  1,000,  and  for  the  Navy  8.3  per  1.000.  and 
concludes  from  this,  that  soldiers  and  sailors  should  not  have  been 
combined.  We  quite  agree  with  him,  as  there  is  reason  to  believe  that 
the  factor  of  environment,  such  as  close  sleeping  quarters  and  damp- 

'Quarterly  Publication  of  the  American    Statistical    Association,    December. 
1002,  p.  172. 


12 

ness,  influence  the  life  of  sailors  adversely.  He  also  refers  to  a  num- 
ber of  misleading  occupation  death  rates,  because  no  correction  is  made 
for  the  difference  in  age  distribution  in  widely  different  employments. 
As  a  result  "the  published  rates  do  great  injustice  to  employments, 
entirely  healthy,  while  giving  favorable  position  to  employments  the 
health  conditions  of  which  are  quite  the  opposite.  This  point  is  readily 
illustrated,  if  comparison  is  made  of  the  mortality  of  farmers  and 
printers,  the  former  of  which  according  to  the  Census,  experienced 
a  mortality  'at  all  ages'  of  17.6  per  1,000,  against  a  death  rate  of  12. 1 
per  1,000  for  printers.  Hence,  apparently,  printers  enjoy  a  much  lower 
mortality  than  farmers.  Of  course  the  opposite  is  the  case.  The 
inaccuracy  of  the  rates  is  the  result  of  radical  differences  in  the  age 
distribution  of  the  two  employments,  there  being  11.5%  of  farmers  at 
ages  65  and  over,  while  among  printers  there  are  only  1.5%  living  at 
this  age  period.  *  *  *  When  proper  comparison  is  made  the  mor- 
tality in  farmers  is  considerably  below  that  of  printers  at  all  periods 
of  life." 

Mr.  Hoffman's  suggestions  for  improving  vital  statistics  are  worthy 
of  careful  consideration.  The  present  Chief  Statistician  of  the  Division 
of  Vital  Statistics,  Dr.  Wilbur,  is  a  trained  physician,  a  keen  student  of 
social,  sanitary  and  industrial  questions,  and  perfectly  familiar  with  the 
literature  and  the  results  achieved  by  more  accurate  and  scientific 
methods  of  the  treatment  of  the  subject  elsewhere.  We  may,  there- 
fore, confidently  expect  more  definite  data  concerning  the  relative 
danger  incident  to  various  occupations. 

MORBIDITY   AND   MORTALITY   OF   WAGE-EARNERS. 

The  statistics  of  the  morbidity  and  mortality  of  various  occupa- 
tions, while  far  from  satisfactory,  and  subject  to  more  or  less  erro- 
neous conclusions,  nevertheless  indicate  that  persons  habitually  engaged 
in  hard  work  are  more  frequently  subject  to  disease  and  present  a 
higher  mortality  than  persons  more  favorably  situated ;  and  this  is 
especially  true  of  factory  employees,  because  their  work  is  generally 
more  monotonous,  fatiguing,  performed  under  less  favorable  surround- 
ings, and  they  are  too  often  also  badly  nourished  and  badly  housed. 

Rohe,  in  his  "Text  Book  on  Hygiene,"  presents  a  table  of  a  large 
number  of  persons  in  the  State  of  Massachusetts  whose  occupations 
were  specified,  the  total  number  of  decedents  was  144,954;  the 
average  age  at  death  was  50.90.  From  this  tabulation  it  appears,  that 
farmers  and  gardeners  have  the  greatest  expectation  of  life,  with 
an  average  of  65.29  years  : 


13 

Active  mechanics,  outdoors 5&I0.  yars 

Active  mechanics,  indoors 47-.S7  years 

Inactive,  mechanics,  in  shops 43  H7  yean 

Professional   nun    5°^'  years 

Merchants,   financiers,   agents,  etc 

Laborers  without  special  trades 47-4'  years 

Factors,  laboring  abroad,  etc 3&2Q  years 

Employed  on  the  ocean . 4644  years 

Females  engaged  in  wage-earning  occupations 30. 13  years 

Among  the  occupations  usually  classed  as  inimical  to  health  are 
bleachers,  bookbinders,  brass  founders,  compositors,  coppersmiths, 
electrotypers,  stonecutters,  gas-works  employees,  white-lead  workers, 
match  workers,  persons  employed  in  the  manufacture  of  explosives, 
firemen,  potters,  file  makers,  and  rubber-factory  operatives. 

The  following  table  from  the  reports  of  the  Twelfth  Census  shows 
the  death  rates  per  1,000  for  leading  causes  and  for  all  causes  in 
certain  occupations  in  1900: 

DEATH  RATE  PER  1,000  EMPLOYEES  IN  CERTAIN    OCCUPATIONS    IN    REGISTRA- 
TION STATES  IN   1900,  BY  PRINCIPAL  CAUSES  OF  DEATH. 


Occupation. 


Death   rate  per   1,000. 


Tuber- 
culosis 

Dis- 
eases of 

luufrs. 

system. 

2. SO 

I.60 

2.12 

2.99 

1-35 

1.50 

2.56 

2.74 

2.87 

2.30 

3-59 

2.21 

2.31 

2-45 

4.76 

1.79 

4-35 

1.30 

2.00 

2.90 

2.29 

2.08 

2.36 

.91 

3-u 

1. 01 

2.27 

2.67 

i-95 

1.24 

5-40 

1. 10 

2-93 

2.26 

2.07 

.84 

1.98 

4-47 

3-J9 

2.13 

2.94 

.90 

2.18 

1-43 

3.6s 

1-77 

2.61 

.89 

1. 11 

3.70 

1.20 

1.29 

•95 

Dis-     ]    icri- 

e*s€sofl  dent- 
urin»ry    and  in- 
".ani     juries. 


MANUFACTURING    AND    MECHANICAL 
INDUSTRIES. 


Bakers     and     confectioners 

Blacksmiths 

Boot  and  shoe  makers , 

Brewers,  distillers,  and  rectifiers , 

Butchers    , 

Cabinetmakers  and  upholsterers , 

Carpenters  and  joiners , 

Cigar  makers  and  tobacco  workers , 

Compositors,    printers,    and   pressmen.... 

Coopers 

Engineers  and  firemen   (not  locomotive)  , 

Iron   and   steel    workers 

Leather  makers 

Leather  workers    

Machinists    

Marble   and    stone   cutters 

Masons   (brick  and  stone) 

Mill  and  factory  operatives  (textiles)..., 

Millers    (flour  and  grist) 

Painters,  glaziers,   and  varnishers 

Plumbers  and  gas  and  steam  fitters 

Tailors    

Tinners   and   tinware   makers 


AGRICULTURE, 


TRANSPORTATION 
OUTDOOR. 


AND      OTHER 


Draymen,   hackmen,  teamsters,   etc... 
Farmers,  planters,  and  farm  laborers. 

Miners  and  quarrymen 

Steam   railroad   employees 


1.02 
1.90 
i-45 
2.22 
i-77 
1.61 
2.23 
i-7S 

•93 
2.72 
1.80 
1. 01 
1.26 
2. 11 
i-°3 
i-59 
2.32 

.90 
3.81 
1.69 

•59 
1.28 
1.36 


•  9S 
2.62 


.88 


1. 17 
1.68 

■95 
2.40 
1.72 
i-73 
1.46 
2.15 
1. 15 
2.09 
>-77 
1.81 
1-3' 

•97 
1. 10 
J-37 
2.30 

.80 
2.97 
J-54 
1. 13 
1. 13 
i-37 


1.47 

1.49 

•77 

.60 


1-45 
1.90 

.78 
2.56 
1-36 
'■57 
1-73 
1.68 

•93 
3-o8 
1.66 

■  77 

■84 
3.27 

.98 

•83 
1.83 

•57 
1. 16 
1.82 

.88 
1.38 
1.31 


0.61 

1. 00 

•33 

'■3  7 

.81 

.64 

1. 18 

.70 

•49 

1.36 

1.83 

.78 

.66 

•97 

•7' 

•99 

i-57 

•75 

1.98 

1.28 

■  ;6 
•51 
•91 


3.78 
4.10 


»23 

18.3 

9-4 

'9-7 
16.1 
18.0 
17.3 
18.7 

13. 1 
33.8 

'5-7 
10.7 

I3.J 

»7-5 
10.5 
J  4-9 

11 
26.6 
16.3 
9' 
11.8 
'4-5 


11. o 
I7« 

10.8 


The   following  table   from  the   report  of  the   registrar-general   of 
Fngland  and  Wales  shows  the  comparative  mortality  of  occupations 


14 

in  England  and  Wales  1890- 1892.  The  average  mortality  of  all 
males  of  the  population  between  25  and  65  years  of  age  was  placed  at 
1,000.  The  mortality  of  occupied  males  was  953  and  of  the  unoccu- 
pied 2,215.  The  comparative  mortality  of  the  different  groups  was 
as  follows : 


Occupation. 

Compara- 
tive mor- 
tality. 

Occupation. 

Compara- 
tive  mor- 
tality. 

533 
553 
563 
604 
664 
783 
821 

845 
8S9 
966 
989 

1,001 
1,096 
1,096 

Cotton    manufacturer,  Lancashire 

1,176 
1,284 
i,322 
1,427 

Innkeeper,    hotel    servant 

Potter,  earthenware  manufacturer 

Medical  practitioner 

1,706 
1,810 

A  reasonable  explanation  for  the  excessive  mortality  in  some  of  the 
occupations  will  be  found  in  subsequent  pages ;  the  high  rates  in 
brewers,  innkeepers,  and  hotel  servants  are  believed  to  be  due  to  the 
effects  of  alcohol. 

According  to  Rauchberg1  the  average  number  per  1,000  members 
of  the  "Vienna  Sick  Benefit  Society"  taken  sick  during  a  period  of 
17  years  was  423  per  annum  distributed  as  follows: 


Occupation. 


Average 
number 

taken  sick 
per    1,000 

members. 


Occupation. 


Average 
number 

taken   sick 
per    1,000 

members. 


Assistant  machinists 

Factory  employees  &  day  laborers 

Foundrymen    

Blacksmiths     

Masons  and  stonecutters 

Painters     

Weavers  and   spinners 

Locksmiths    


477 
473 
451 
437 
378 
367 
354 


Iron  workers    

Shoemakers     

Tinners    and   bronzers 

Cabinetmakers  and  wood  workers 

Saddlers     

Tailors    and    furriers 

Other  mechanics   


35i 
343 
339 
326 
282 
215 
463 


Industrial  diseases  and  industrial  accidents  are  everywhere  assum- 
ing more  and  more  importance  and  our  knowledge  should  be  based 
upon  accurate  data.  In  countries  like  England,  where  reports  of  cer- 
tain occupations  are  compulsory,  it  is  quite  possible  to  secure,  for 
example,  reliable  data  as  to  the  number  of  cases  of  lead  poisoning. 
The  same  may  be  said  of  the  facilities  afforded  by  the  statistics  of  the 
"German  Industrial  Insurance  Institutes,"  which  furnish  not  only 
the  number  of  deaths,  but  also  the  number  of  cases  treated,  together 


'Die  allg.  Arbeiter-Kranken  und  Invalidencasse  in  Wien,  il 


»5 

with  the  age  period  and  the  duration  of  the  disease.  Similar  facts 
should  be  collected  in  this  country.  This  is  all  the  more  important 
when  it  is  remembered  that  even  with  the  most  complete  Btati 
it  is  extremely  difficult  to  determine  all  the  factors  which  influence 
the  health  and  longevity  of  operatives.  Greal  differences  are  found 
in  the  conditions  under  which  the  work  is  performed,  some  of  which 
are  entirely  avoidable,  while  others  are  not,  and  it  is  hardly  fair  to 
characterize  certain  trades  as  dangerous,  when  experience  has  shown 
that  no  harm  results  when  proper  safeguards  have  been  taken.  In 
the  consideration  of  this  question  the  personal  element  of  the  work- 
men, their  habits,  mode  of  life,  food,  home  environments,  etc.,  can 
not  be  ignored.  There  are  a  number  of  occupations  in  which  the 
alcohol  habit  prevails  to  an  unusual  extent,  perhaps  because  of  the 
character  of  the  work,  perhaps  as  a  result  of  association,  and  it  would 
not  be  fair  to  attribute  the  ill  health  of  the  operatives  altogether  to 
the  character  of  the  employment.  Again,  many  persons  are  engaged 
in  occupations  for  which  they  are  not  physically  fitted,  while  others 
ruin  their  health  by  vice,  dissipation,  improper  food,  and  insanitary 
environments  at  home.  In  addition  to  all  this  there  are  factors,  such 
as  water  and  soil  pollution,  for  which  neither  the  industry  nor  the 
individuals  are  primarily  to  blame.  Thus,  for  example,  the  general 
anaemia  of  the  agricultural  classes  in  Porto  Rico  was  attributed  a 
few  years  ago  to  their  occupation  and  starvation,  when  as  a  matter  of 
fact  it  was  caused  by  the  "hook-worm  disease."  Recent  investiga- 
tions conducted  by  Doctor  Stiles  appear  to  indicate  that  the  same 
disease  prevails  to  some  extent  among  the  textile  operatives  in  the 
South.  All  this  indicates  the  need  of  a  thorough  study  of  the  condi- 
tions affecting  health  in  various  occupations,  not  only  to  determine 
the  relative  health  risks  and  the  causes  of  the  undue  prevalence  of 
certain  diseases  in  certain  occupations,  but  also  to  formulate  rules 
which  may  remove  the  causes  or  render  the  system  better  fitted  to 
resist  them.  In  this,  as  in  all  preventive  efforts,  a  hearty  co-operation 
of  the  parties  interested  is  absolutely  essential  for  the  attainment  of 
the  highest  measure  of  success.  In  this  instance  the  responsibility 
rests  with  the  State,  the  employer,  and  employees ;  each  have  certain 
duties  to  perform,  and  the  help  of  all  is  essential  for  the  mitigation  of 
existing  evils. 

INDOOR   OCCUPATIONS. 

Indoor  employment,  broadly  speaking,  is  inimical  to  health,  while 
outdoor  work  in  a  pure  air  favors  health  and  longevity.  Without 
underrating    the    influence    of    insanitary    dwellings,    improper    and 


i6 

insufficient  food,  lack  of  recreation,  and  other  factors,  there  is  no  doubt 
that  one  of  the  chief  dangers  of  indoor  life  is  exposure  to  vitiated  air. 
The  air  of  dwellings  and  workshops  is  never  as  pure  as  the  outer  air, 
because  it  is  polluted  by  the  products  of  respiration,  combustion,  and 
decomposition,  and  the  presence  of  individuals  also  tends  to  vitiate 
the  air  with  dust,  germs,  and  organic  matter  from  the  skin,  mouth, 
lungs,  and  soiled  clothing.  Unless  proper  provision  is  made  for  the 
dispersion  of  foul  air  and  the  introduction  of  pure  air  there  is  much 
reason  for  assuming  that  these  impurities  play  a  more  or  less  impor- 
tant role  in  what  has  been  designated  as  "crowd  poisoning,"  character- 
ized in  the  acute  form  by  symptoms  of  oppression,  headache,  dizziness, 
and  faintness,  while  the  chronic  effects  of  deficient  oxygenation  and 
purification  of  the  blood  are  plainly  evinced  by  the  pallor,  loss  of 
appetite,  anaemia,  and  gradual  loss  of  physical  and  mental  vigor.  All 
of  these  effects  are  intensified  when  human  or  animal  beings  are 
obliged  to  occupy  rooms  with  an  air  supply  insufficient  for  the  proper 
oxygenation  of  the  blood,  and  as  a  result  of  this  habitual  exposure  to 
vitiated  air,  we  note  an  undue  prevalence  of  consumption  in  crowded 
workshops,  dwellings,  prisons,  public  institutions,  and  formerly  also  in 
military  barracks  and  battle  ships.  Even  live  stock  shows  the  baneful 
effects  of  insufficient  air  space  for  tuberculosis  among  the  range  cattle 
of  the  far  west,  which  are  practically  without  shelter,  is  comparatively 
rare,  while  it  affects  from  15  to  25  per  cent,  of  dairy  herds,  which  are 
housed,  but  without  sufficient  regard  to  light  and  air.  Improved  ven- 
dition and  increased  air  space  has  everywhere  lessened  the  death 
rate,  and  it  is  chiefly  by  just  such  measures  that  the  rate  from  con- 
sumption has  been  reduced  from  11.9  to  1.2  per  1,000  in  the  British 
armies.  As  a  matter  of  fact,  an  abundance  of  pure  air  has  been  found 
the  most  important  factor  in  the  treatment  of  tuberculosis,  because  it 
promotes  oxygenation  of  the  blood,  stimulates  the  appetite  and  nutri- 
tion, and  thereby  increases  the  general  resisting  power  of  the  system. 

OCCUPATIONS   INVOLVING  EXPOSURE  TO   IRRITATING 

DUST. 

It  has  long  been  known  that  dust-inhaling  occupations  predispose 
to  diseases  of  the  respiratory  passages,  which  may  result  in  consump- 
tion. The  particles  of  mineral  dust  produce  an  irritation  of  the 
mucous  membrane  of  the  nose,  throat,  respiratory  organs,  and  eyes, 
and  the  hard,  sharp,  and  angular  particles  of  iron  and  stone  dust  may 
cause   actual   abrasions.      According   to   Arnold1    the   dust   which    is 

'Untersuchungen  ueber  Staubinhalation,  etc.,  Leipzig,  1885. 


•7 

inhaled  lodges  on  the  RIUCOUS  membrane  of  the  air  p;i  -  ag<     and 
cles  of  the  lungs,  there  to  be  coughed  up,  although  some  of  the  finest 

particles  are  taken  up  by  the  epithelial  <  '11  and  white  corpu 
carried  to  the  nearest  lymphatic  glands.  The  coarser  particles,  such  as 
iron,  stone,  or  coal  dust,  usually  lodge  upon  the  Burface  to  be  coughed 
up  with  the  secretions.  If  not  expectorated  they  will  cause  harm  by 
clogging  up  the  air  vesicles  and  interfere  with  respiration.  In  the 
meantime  not  infrequently  an  irritation  is  set  up,  causing  catarrhal 
conditions  of  the  mucous  membrane,  or  a  more  serious  chronic  inflam- 
mation of  the  respiratory  organs,  so  common  among  persons  engaged 
in  dusty  occupations.  The  chronic  inflammatory  conditions  thus 
produced  favor  infection  with  the  tubercle  bacillus.  At  all  events 
Hirt's  statistics  show  that  men  employed  in  dust-producing  occupa- 
tions suffer  much  more  frequently  from  pneumonia  and  consumption 
than  those  not  exposed  to  dust  and  that  there  is  practically  no  differ- 
ence in  frequency  of  disease  of  the  digestive  system.  The  relative 
frequently  of  these  diseases  per  1,000  workmen  is  as  follows:1 


CASES  OF  CONSUMPTION,  PNEUMONIA,  AND  DIGESTIVE  DISORDERS  PER   1,000 
WORKERS    IN    CERTAIN    OCCUPATIONS. 


Workers  in  metallic  dust.  .  .  . 
Workers  in  mineral  dust.. 
Workers  in  mixed  dust.... 
Workers  in  animal  dust.... 
Workers  in  vegetable  dust.  .  . 
Workers   in   nondusty   trades 


Con- 
sump- 
tion. 

Pneu- 
monia. 

Diges- 
tive dis- 
orders. 

28.0 
25.2 

17.4 
5-9 

17.8 
16.6 

22.6 

6.0 

'5-2 

20.8 

7-7 

20.3 

13-3 

1 1.1 

9-4 
4.6 

15-7 
16.0 

Perlen  in  his  "Inaugural  Dissertation,"  Munich,  1887,2  discussed 
the  records  of  the  Munich  Polyclinic,  where  65,766  persons  were 
treated  between  1865-1885,  including  4,177  tuberculosis  patients,  viz., 
2,801  males,  1,263  females,  and  83  children.  Of  these,  1,425  patients 
had  been  engaged  in  occupations  wdiere  they  were  exposed  to  dust,  viz : 

30  per  cent  were  by  reason  of  occupation  exposed  to  metallic  dust. 
26  per  cent  were  by  reason  of  occupation  exposed  to  vegetable  dust. 
18  per  cent  were  by  reason  of  occupation  exposed  to  mineral  dust 
17  per  cent  were  by  reason  of  occupation  exposed  to  mixed  dust. 
8  per  cent  were  by  reason  of  occupation  exposed  to  animal  dust. 

According  to  the  reports  of  the  Census  of  1900  the  consumption 
death  rate  of  marble  and  stonecutters  in  the  United  States  is  six  times 
that  of  bankers,  brokers,  and  officials  of  companies,  and  the  mortality 
in  fifty-one  other  employments  ranges  between  these  extremes. 

1  Cited  by  Harrington,  Practical  Hygiene.  1002,  p.  67S. 
2Cited  by  Uffelmann,  Handbuchd.  Hygiene,  1800,  p.  587. 


i8 


The  amount  of  dust  is  perhaps  less  important  than  the  character  of 
the  particles  which  compose  it.  The  susceptibility  to  consumption  in 
metal  workers,  and  stonecutters  can  only  be  explained  by  the  fact 
that  the  hard,  sharp,  and  irregular  particles  of  this  kind  of  dust  are 
more  apt  to  produce  injury  of  the  mucous  membranes  of  the  respira- 
tory tract.  But  it  is  not  fair  to  assume  that  the  less  irritating  dust  is 
free  from  danger,  for  as  pointed  out  by  E.  Roth1  even  the  inhalation 
of  plaster  of  Paris  or  flour  dust  can  not  be  regarded  with  indifference, 
especially  when  it  is  preventable. 

Ahrens2  found  the  amount  of  dust  for  each  cubic  meter  of  air  in 
certain  industrial  establishments  as  follows : 


Mg. 

Horsehair    works 10 

Sawmill    17 

Woolen  factory    20 

Woolen  factory  with  exhauster 7 

Paper  factory   24 

Laboratory     1.4 


Mg. 

Flour    mill    28 

Foundry     28 

Polishing   room   of   foundry 71.7 

Felt   shoe   factory 175 

Cement  works    224 


According  to  Schuler  and  Burkhardt,  cited  by  Roth,  the  morbidity 
among  1,000  workmen  engaged  in  dusty  occupations  is  as  follows : 


Paper   factory   employees 343 

Mechanical   industrial  shops 419 

Wood  turners 427 

Laborers  in  the  rag  storeroom  of  a  paper 

factory    429 


Bookbinders   98 

Silk  weavers    205 

Cotton  spinners 235 

Printers     250 

Cotton  weavers   285 

Type  founders  and  typesetters 304 

According  to  Sommerfeld,  cited  by  Roth,  the  mortality  in  Berlin 
of  persons  engaged  in  nondusty  occupations  is  2.39  per  1,000;  of  per- 
sons engaged  in  dusty  occupations  is  5.42  per  1,000;  the  mortality  of 
the  Berlin  population  at  the  same  ages  is  4.93  per  1,000. 

Of  1,000  deaths  the  number  of  deaths  from  consumption  in  occu- 
pations without  development  of  dust  was  381 ;  in  occupations  with 
development  of  dust  it  was  480 ;  in  the  Berlin  population  at  the  same 
ages  332.3. 

METALLIC    AND    MINERAL    DUST. 

It  will  be  readily  understood  that  in  the  cutlery  and  tool  industry, 
especially  in  the  grinding  and  polishing  departments,  more  or  less 
dust  is  evolved  not  only  from  the  metallic  surfaces,  but  also  from  the 
numerous  grindstones,  and  emery  and  corundum  wheels.  This  dust 
production  is  not  wholly  avoidable,  even  when  the  wet  process  is 
employed.  It  is  known  that  occupations  involving  the  inhalation  of 
this  dust  tend  to  produce  diseases  of  the  lungs,  such  as  bronchitis, 
peribronchitis   and   fibroid   pneumonia,   but   tuberculosis,    also   spoken 

Compendium   der  Gewerbekrankheiten,   Berlin,    1904,  p.    106. 
2Archiv  fur  Hygiene,  1894,  Heft  2. 


19 

of  by  the  workmen  as   "grinders   asthma"   and   "grinders   rot"   leads 
the  list. 

Moritz  and  Roepke1  have  shown  that  72.5  per  cent,  of  the  deaths 
among  the  metal  grinders  of  Solingen  are  due  to  consumption,  as  com- 
pared with  35.5  per  cent  among  the  general  population. 

The  death  returns  for  12  years  of  the  city  of  Northampton,  M 
one  of  the  centers  of  the  cutlery  and  tool  industry,  show  that  among 
'grinders,"    "polishers,"    and    "cutlers"    diseases    of    the    lungs    were 
responsible  for  72.73  per  cent  of  the  mortality  inclusive  of  54.5  per 
cent  of  deaths  from  tuberculosis.* 

Hirt  gives  the  percentage  of  consumption  in  the  total  number  of 
sick  among  different  classes  of  workers  in  metal  as  follows :  Needle 
polishers,  69.6  per  cent;  file  cutters,  who  are  also  exposed  to  inhala- 
tion of  lead,  62.2  per  cent;  grinders,  40  per  cent;  nail  cutters,  12  per 
cent. 

Greenhow3  over  50  years  ago  called  attention  to  the  excessive 
mortality  among  the  needle  polishers  of  Sheffield.  Beyer4  found  that 
of  196  needle  polishers  at  Remscheid  only  24  were  over  40  years  of 
age.  The  reason  why  this  occupation  is  especially  dangerous,  is 
because  the  "wet  process"  can  not  be  employed  for  small  objects,  which 
moreover  have  to  be  brought  more  closely  to  the  eyes,  and  thus  the 
chances  for  the  inhalation  of  this  metallic  dust  are  increased. 

The  danger  in  all  such  establishments  can  be  reduced  to  a  minimum 
by  the  employment  of  respirators  and  forced  ventilation  to  carry  the 
dust  away  from  the  operator.  The  Massachusetts  report,  cited  above, 
states  that  "even  when  employers  have  provided  hoods,  connected 
with  a  system  of  exhaust  fans  or  blowers,  a  very  large  proportion  of 
grinders  recklessly  remove  the  hoods,  and  thus  expose  themselves 
unnecessarily  to  this  especially  dangerous  form  of  dust.  They  assert 
that  they  prefer  freedom  of  movement,  with  dust,  to  the  protection 
offered  by  hoods." 

Stonecutting  is  regarded  as  a  dangerous  occupation,  and  con- 
sumption is  quite  common  among  men  engaged  in  the  industry.  Those 
who  have  witnessed  the  various  operations  realize  that  in  spite  of  wet 
processes,  and  employment  in  the  open  air,  the  workmen  are  exposed 
to  a  great  amount  of  this  irritating  form  of  dust,  especially  those  who 
operate  the  pneumatic  tools. 

1  Cited  by  Roth.  p.  26. 

^Report  of  the  State  Board  of  Health  of  Massachusetts  upon  the  sanitary 
condition  of  factories,  workshops,  etc..  1907.  p.  87. 

3Cited  by  Sander.  Handbuch  der  oeffnetl.  Gesundheitspflege,  1885.  p.  106. 
4Beyer.  Die  Fabrikindustrie  des  Reg.  B.  Duesseldorf.  1876. 


20 

A  collective  investigation  published  in  iqoi,  and  cited  by  Roth1 
shows  that  of  every  ioo  deaths  among  stonecutters,  polishers,  and 
quarrymen  86  were  due  to  diseases  of  the  lungs,  inclusive  of  55  deaths 
from  consumption.  Of  2,013  stonecutters  examined  by  Sommerfeld, 
19.7  per  cent  were  afflicted  with  consumption ;  17.98  per  cent  with  other 
diseases  of  the  lungs,  and  nearly  all  had  a  chronic  catarrh  of  the  throat 
or  larynx. 

According  to  the  report  of  the  Board  of  Health  of  Massachusetts, 
previously  cited,2  of  343  deaths  which  occurred  in  the  city  of  Quincy, 
Mass.,  among  stonecutters  during  a  period  of  about  16  years,  41.4  per 
cent  were  due  to  pulmonary  consumption;  12  per  cent  to  other  dis- 
eases of  the  lungs;  12.8  per  cent  to  diseases  of  the  heart;  7  per  cent 
to  violence  and  26.8  per  cent  to  all  other  causes. 

Mr.  Frederick  S.  Crums  calls  attention  to  the  excessive  average 
mortality  rate  from  consumption,  205.4  in  Barre,  Vt.,  which  he  attrib- 
utes to  the  stone  cutting  industry. 

Millstone  and  slate  cutting  are  also  regarded  as  dangerous  occupa- 
tions. Persons  engaged  in  glass  cutting  and  polishing  are  not  only 
exposed  to  the  inhalation  of  a  sharp  and  irritating  dust,  but  also  to 
lead  poisoning  from  the  use  of  putty  powder,  which  contains  70  per 
cent  of  lead  oxide.  In  glass  establishments  in  Massachusetts,  where 
all  the  cutting  and  polishing  is  done  by  the  wet  method,  no  dust  is 
perceptible  and  the  employees  as  a  class  appear  to  enjoy  good  health. 
Gem  finishers  also  have  a  high  consumption  and  sick  rate.  Work- 
ers in  mica  dust  and  bronzing  powders  used  in  the  manufacture  of 
wall  papers,  fancy  souvenir  cards,  moldings,  frames,  etc.,  are  predis- 
posed to  diseases  of  the  respiratory  passages,  and  the  bronze  powder 
in  addition  is  liable  to  produce  headache,  loss  of  appetite,  nausea, 
vomiting,  and  diarrhea. 

It  is  said  of  the  bronzing  department  of  some  of  the  lithographing 
establishments  in  Massachusetts,  that  in  spite  of  the  exhaust  ventila- 
tion the  air  is  heavy  with  bronze  dust  most  of  the  time.4  "The  boys 
who  run  the  fine  bronzing  machines  wear  handkerchiefs  over  the  nose 
and  mouth.  They  look  pale  and  unhealthy,  and  all  show  the  charac- 
teristic green  perspiration  due  to  contact  with  bronze.  The  great 
majority  of  the  employees  appear  to  be  healthy." 

In  the  manufacture  of  machinery  and  metal  supplies  some  of  the 

Compendium  der  Gewerbekrankheiten,  Berlin,  1904,  p.  108. 

2 Page  79. 

3Quarterly  Publication  of  American  Statistical  Association,  December,  1907, 
P-  465- 

4Report  of  the  State  Board  of  Health  of  Massachusetts  upon  the  sanitary 
condition  of  factories,  workshops,  etc.,  1907,  p.  80. 


21 

operations  involve  exposure  to  'lust,  funics,  vapors,  or  extreme  beat 
In  some  of  the  processes,  where  emery  wheels  and  revolving  wire 
brushes  are  used,  enormous  amounts  of  fine  jteel  and  emery  dust  are 
given  off,  unless  equipped  with  exhaust  ventilating  appliances.     In  a 

Massachusetts  investigation  covering  24  establishments  the  air  of 
some  of  the  rooms  was  found  exceedingly  dusty  and  about  one-tenth 
of  the  occupants  looked  pale  and  sickly,  and  complained  of  the  irrita- 
tion of  the  air  passages  by  the  dust.  The  number  of  employ* 
these  establishments  ranges  between  12,500  and  15,000.  Some  of  the 
establishments  were  models  in  character  as  regards  light,  ventilation, 
and  general  sanitation.  "The  tumblers  and  emery  wheels  are  pro- 
vided with  hoods  and  blowers  which  are  effective  and  there  is  practi- 
cally no  dust.  The  rooms  in  which  castings  are  dipped  are  properly 
ventilated  and  all  fumes  are  effectively  removed.  All  of  the  machin- 
ery is  well  protected." 

One  brass  foundry  was  reported  where  the  air  was  heavy  with 
fumes,  especially  in  winter,  no  mechanical  ventilation  being  installed, 
and  in  which  the  workmen  have  occasional  attacks  of  "brass  founders' 
ague."  The  following  may  be  taken  as  a  fair  statement  of  the  hygienic 
aspects  of  the  machinery  and  metal  industry :  "While  the  nature  of 
some  of  the  processes  is  such  as  to  warrant  classification  of  this 
industry  with  the  dangerous  trades,  the  conditions  under  which  the 
work  is  done  are  very  largely  responsible  for  the  injurious  effects  on 
the  health  of  the  employees,  and  these  conditions  are  to  a  considerable 
extent  avoidable  or  at  least  susceptible  of  improvement." 

The  same  Massachusetts  investigation  covered  14  iron  and  steel 
foundries  and  9  stove  foundries.  In  one  -establishment,  the  department 
in  which  the  castings  are  sand  blasted  was  found  very  objectionable, 
as  the  air  was  heavily  impregnated  with  flying  sand,  which  "gets  into 
the  mouth,  nose,  and  eyes  and  the  employees  suffer  considerably  from 
soreness  of  the  last-mentioned  organs."  In  another  establishment 
this  condition  is  very  much  ameliorated  by  a  large  flaring  hood  in  the 
center  of  the  room  with  upward-suction  draft,  the  operatives  wearing 
helmets  with  fine  wire  inserts  to  protect  the  eyes,  and  cloths  under- 
neath the  helmets  to  protect  the  nose  and  mouth.  In  one  of  the  stove 
foundries,  "the  dust  from  the  polishing  and  buffing  process,  in  the 
absence  of  hoods  and  exhaust  ventilation,  is  so  thick  that  objects  a  few 
feet  distant  can  not  clearly  be  made  out.  Many  men  refuse  to  work  in 
this  establishment  in  the  hot  months  on  account  of  the  excessive  heat 
and  general  discomfort.  In  some  instances,  however,  where  the  neces- 
sary protection  is  afforded  by  the  employer,  the  men  habitually  remove 
the  hoods  and  become  covered  with  emery  and  iron  particles." 


22 

In  the  crushing,  grinding,  and  sifting  process  incident  to  the  manu- 
facture of  emery,  corundum,  and  sandpaper  more  or  less  fine  dust  is 
given  off  in  spite  of  the  fact  that  the  machines  are  more  or  less  com- 
pletely inclosed.  The  emery  and  corundum  industry  must  be  classed 
among  the  trades  intrinsically  dangerous  to  health,  on  account  of  the 
peculiarly  irritating  character  of  dust.  But  as  is  the  case  with  other 
dusty  occupations,  few  of  those  employed  can  be  induced  to  wear 
respirators. 

Coal  miners,  charcoal  men,  firemen,  chimney  sweeps,  etc.,  are 
exposed  to  constant  inhalation  of  coal  dust  and  soot,  and  though  sub- 
ject to  chronic  bronchial  catarrh,  consumption  is  not  especially  common 
among  them. 

VEGETABLE  DUST. 

Millers  and  bakers  inhale  flour  dust,  and  according  to  Hirt  20.3  per 
cent  of  all  the  diseases  in  millers  are  pneumonia,  9.3  per  cent  bronchial 
catarrh,  10.9  per  cent  consumption,  and  1.9  per  cent  emphysema 
(abnormal  collection  of  air  in  the  lungs).  The  tuberculosis  death 
rate  according  to  Schuler  among  millers  in  Switzerland  is  3.75,  as  com- 
pared with  2.95  per  1,000  in  the  general  population.  Carpenters, 
joiners,  cabinetmakers,  etc.,  are  exposed  to  wood  dust,  and  the  dust 
from  hard  wood  is  probably  more  injurious  than  that  from  softer 
kinds.  Dr.  E.  J.  Neisser1  refers  to  a  wooden-tool  factory  at  Stras- 
burg  which  in  1904  furnished  15  cases  of  sickness  out  of  the  20  em- 
ployees, with  288  days  loss  of  work,  distributed  as  follows — diseases 
of  the  eyes,  1 ;  of  nose,  1  ;  throat,  2,  and  diseases  of  the  lungs,  6.  The 
Massachusetts  Board  of  Health  found  that  in  the  agricultural  tool 
and  implement  industry  a  hard  wood  called  "coca-bola,"  which  is 
used  for  tool  handles,  evolves  a  very  pungent  and  irritating  dust,  pro- 
ductive of  inflammation  of  the  eyes  and  skin.  Some  persons  in  the 
course  of  a  week  or  two,  become  accustomed  to  its  effects,  while 
others  are  obliged  to  discontinue  work  in  the  department.2 

The  medical  inspector  of  Great  Britain,  according  to  Neisser, 
reported  a  number  of  toxic  symptoms  which  occurred  among  persons 
engaged  in  the  manufacture  of  weaver  shuttles  made  from  African 
boxwood.  Investigation  revealed  the  presence  of  an  alkaloid  in  the 
wood,  which  acted  as  a  heart  depressant,  producing  a  slow  and  inter- 
mittent pulse;  headache,  drowsiness,  watering  of  the  eyes  and  nose, 
difficulty  in  breathing,  nausea,  and  weakness. 

Internationale  Uebersicht  ueber  Gewerbehygiene,  Berlin,  1907. 

2Report  of  the  State  Board  of  Health  of  Massachusetts  upon  the  sanitary 
condition  of  factories,  workshops,  etc.,  1907,  p.  89. 


23 

Laborers  in  grain  elevators  and  grain  threshers  inhale  a  very  irri- 
tating dust,  which  may  cause  acute  and  chronic  catarrh  of  the  QlUCOttS 

membranes.  Workers  in  tobacco  suffer  more  or  lesi  from  nasal,  con- 
junctival, and  bronchial  catarrh  and  digestive  and  nervous  derange- 
ments, and  although  the  mucous  membranes  gradually  become  accus- 
tomed to  the  irritation  of  the  dust  and  fumes  the  occupation  appeafl 
to  be  dangerous,  as  the  consumption  rate  ranks  next  to  that  of 
stonecutters. 

It  is  said  that  female  workers  in  tobacco  are  more  liable  to  mis- 
carry; at  all  events  Doctor  Rosenfeld,  cited  by  Roth  (p.  i66j,  found 
this  to  be  true  in  Austria.  Dr.  E.  R.  Tracy,  of  New  York,  reports 
that  325  cigar  makers'  families  visited  by  him  had  only  465  children, 
an  average  of  1.43  to  each  family,  and  feels  disposed  to  attribute  this 
to  the  frequent  abortions  among  the  female  operatives.  This  experi- 
ence is  not  confirmed  by  recent  observations  made  in  German  tobacco 
towns  like  Giessen,  for  example  (Neisser,  p.  125),  and  more  extended 
investigations  are  called  for.  Some  authors  maintain  that  tobacco 
dust  exerts  a  protective  influence  against  infective  agents  and  instance 
the  fact  that  during  the  cholera  epidemic  of  Hamburg  in  1892  there 
were  only  8  cases  among  the  5,000  resident  cigar  makers.  The  Massa- 
chusetts report  previously  cited  in  discussing  the  cigar  and  cigarette 
factories  in  Massachusetts  refers  (p.  49)  to  the  spitting  habit  and  the 
objectionable  practice  of  finishing  cigars  with  the  aid  of  saliva.  This 
practice  was  observed  in  more  than  one-third  of  the  places  visited,  and 
in  18  factories  the  practice  of  biting  off  the  end  of  the  filler  and  inner 
wrappers  with  the  teeth  was  also  observed.  The  report  reiterates  the 
statement  made  to  the  legislature  in  January,  1905,  as  to  the  possibility 
of  disseminating  loathsome  diseases,  through  this  practice.  Such  con- 
ditions certainly  emphasize  the  necessity  for  the  use  of  cigar  holders. 

TEXTILE  INDUSTRIES. 

Operatives  in  cotton  and  flax  textiles  are  perhaps  more  subject  to 
dust  inhalation  and  various  diseases  of  the  respiratory  and  digestive 
organs  than  those  of  woolen  mills.  The  Census  Report  of  the  United 
States  for  1900  gives  the  death  rate  among  150,783  male  mill  and 
factory  operatives  (textiles)  as  8.1  per  1,000,  and  of  the  162,932 
female  operatives  as  4  per  1.000.  As  pointed  out  by  Mr.  F.  L.  Hoff- 
man it  would  have  been  exceedingly  interesting  to  learn  the  death  rate 
among  cotton,  linen,  wool  and  silk  workers.  The  phthisis  death  rate 
in  1892  in  Belfast  «  with  its  30,000  persons  engaged  in  the  linen  industry 

lG.  H.  Ferris,  Journal  of  State  Medicine,  March.  1895. 


24 


was  4.1  per  1,000  against  1.4  for  the  whole  of  England  and  Wales  and 
2.1  for  Ireland.  According  to  Schuler  and  Burkhardt  1,000  linen  spin- 
ners furnish  annually  221.6  cases  of  sickness;  1,000  weavers  202.7, 
while  female  operatives  suffer  even  more,  the  sick  rate  being  249.5  and 
334.4  for  the  respective  occupations. 

CASES  OF  SICKNESS  PER  1,000  EMPLOYEES  AMONG  SPINNERS  AND  WEAVERS. 


Disease. 


Cases  per 
1,000  spin- 
ners. 


Cases  per 

1,000 
weavers. 


Diseases  of  the  digestive  organs 

Diseases  of  the  respiratory  organs... 

Diseases  of  the  motor  organs 

Diseases  of  a  constitutional   character 


58.7 
47-7 
29.6 
22.9 


103.4 
Sa-S 
21 .2 
31-6 


Arlidge1  gives  a  table  showing  the  comparative  frequency  of  the 
most  important  diseases  in  the  case  of  739  weavers,  and  of  676  persons 
following  the  several  other  branches  of  the  cotton  industry,  such  as 
winders,  spinners,  reelers,  curlers,  mill  hands,  grinders,  etc.,  and  who 
for  convenience  sake  are  designated  by  him  as  machine-room  workers. 
The  figures  are  based  on  1,415  operatives  who  received  treatment  as  in 
and  out  patients  in  connection  with  the  Preston  Hospital  during  a 
period  of  six  years. 


Disease. 


Per  cent  of 
weavers 

treated  for 
specified 
disease. 


Per  cent  of 
machine- 
room  work- 
ers treated 
for  speci- 
fied disease. 


Phthisis     

Dyspepsia    

Bronchitis     

Varicose  veins  and  ulcers 

Rheumatic  affections   

Uterine   disorders   and   displacements 

Neuralgia   

Throat  affections    

Renal    diseases    

Epilepsy    

Heart    diseases    

Debility    

Anaemia   


1 1 .90 

21 .00 

31-30 

6.80 

11.68 

8-43 

4-43 

2.51 

2.66 

3-40 

5-32 

9.17 

2.50 


It  will  be  observed  that  the  Swiss  and  English  statistics  both  reveal 
an  undue  prevalence  of  the  diseases  of  the  :respiratory  and  digestive 
organs.  It  has  been  suggested  that  the  constrained  position  of  weavers 
is  to  a  large  extent  responsible  for  the  undue  prevalence  of  dyspepsia 
among  the  Swiss  weavers,  but  other  factors  like  improper  food,  indoor 
life,  and  home  conditions  should  be  considered.  This  is  apparent  from 
the  fact  that  the  percentage  of  cases  of  dyspepsia  among  the  English 

'Arlidge,  "The  Hygiene,  diseases,  and  mortality  of  occupations,"  London, 
1892,  p.  361. 


25 

weavers  is  smaller  than  among  the  machine-room  worker  .  The  con- 
stitutional disorders  like  anaemia,  chlorosis,  neuralgia,  and  debility  are 

likewise  due  to  a  variety  of  cause  ,  chief  of  which  arc  vitiated  air, 
resulting  from  defective  ventilation  of  the  workshop  .  overwork,  in- 
sufficient or  improper  food,  and  insanitary  homes. 

Uterine  derangements  and  displacements  may  very  properly  be 
attributed  to  general  debility,  overwork,  and  long  standing  in  hot  and 
moist  workrooms,  and,  like  varicose  veins  and  ulcers  and  "flat 
may  be  expected  to  develop  in  other  occupations  involving  long  stand- 
ing.    (See  occupations  involving  constrained  attitudes.  I 

The  undue  prevalence  of  pulmonary  diseases  among  the  textile 
operators  can  be  accounted  for  by  a  number  of  factors,  such  as  the 
presence  of  very  fine  cotton  or  flax  dust  or  "fly ;"  air  vitiated  by  the 
products  of  respiration  and  combustion,  the  presence  of  infectious 
germs  from  the  promiscuous  expectoration  habit ;  faulty  life  and  home 
surroundings.  Of  these  the  presence  of  "fly"  is  doubtless  a  very 
important  predisposing  factor,  since  it  is  generally  admitted  that  this 
dust  acts  as  an  irritant  to  the  respiratory  passages,  and  sooner  or  later 
prepares  the  way  for  the  invasion  of  the  germs  of  tuberculosis,  pneu- 
monia, etc.  Coetsem  describes  the  so-called  byssinosis  or  "pneumonie 
cotonneuse,"  but  it  is  by  no  means  settled  whether  in  these  cases  we 
have  to  deal  with  a  typical  occupation  disease,  or  with  a  specific  infec- 
tion, in  which  the  inhalation  of  the  cotton  dust  simply  operates  as  a 
predisposing  cause.  It  is  very  probable,  however,  that  the  habitual 
inhalation  of  this  dust  may  produce  disease  of  the  lungs  not  necessarily 
tubercular. 

Arlidge  says :  "If  inhaled  longer,  it  reaches  the  bronchi,  and  sets 
up  cough  with  white  mucous  expectoration.  The  cough  will  be  for 
years  chiefly  a  morning  phenomenon  on  first  rising,  but  it  is  also 
induced  upon  leaving  the  warm  workroom.  Fine  fibers  of  cotton  are 
found,  on  microscopical  examination,  in  the  sputum,  and  as  these  make 
their  way  into  the  pulmonary  tissue  they  set  up  morbid  action,  resulting 
in  increasing  density  of  it  on  the  one  hand  and  of  emphysematous 
expansion  on  the  other.  These  morbid  changes  are  accompanied  by 
dyspnoea,  wasting,  and  debility,  but  rarely  with  hemoptysis  [spitting 
of  blood],  and  together  constitute  a  group  of  symptoms  not  inappro- 
priately termed  'industrial  phthisis.'  Moreover,  intercurrent  diseases 
cf  the  lungs,  such  as  acute  bronchitis  and  pneumonia,  often  arise  and 
terminate  life,  and  true  tubercular  phthisis  is  no  uncommon  cause  of 
death." 

The  chief  requirements  for  the  amelioration  of  existing  conditions 
in  the  .textile  industry  are  efficient  machines  for  the  prevention  and 


26 

removal  of  dust.  The  utmost  care  should  be  taken  to  provide  the 
most  perfect  methods  so  far  devised  for  the  removal  of  dust  and  for 
proper  ventilation.  The  lighting  should  be  good,  both  for  day  and 
right  work,  giving  preference  to  electricity.  The  temperature  and 
humidity  of  the  rooms  should  be  regulated,  and  children  under  the 
age  of  14,  or  those  with  weak  chests,  should  not  be  employed  at  all  in 
the  cotton  mills. 

In  the  textile  industry  in  Massachusetts  analysis  of  the  death 
returns  during  the  year  1905  from  the  three  principal  "mill  towns" 
shows  that  although  tuberculosis  is  one  of  the  leading  causes  of  death 
among  mill  operatives  the  general  death  rate  of  this  class  was  by  no 
means  abnormally  high,  being,  respectively,  7,  8,  and  10  per  1,000. 
Tuberculosis  caused,  respectively,  32,  23.57,  and  21  per  cent  of  the 
deaths.  It  appears  also  that  the  general  death  rates  of  the  cities  whose 
population  includes  the  highest  per  centage  of  the  textile  operatives 
compare  not  unfavorably  with  those  of  certain  other  cities  which  are 
engaged  in  other  kinds  of  manufacture  or  are  more  residential  in  char- 
acter, in  spite  of  the  high  rate  of  infant  mortality  which  appears  to  be 
inseparably  connected  with  mill  populations  everywhere.1 

A  source  of  danger  is  the  presence  of  infectious  dust  from  dried 
sputum  in  the  air  of  different  mill  rooms  on  account  of  the  indiscrimi- 
nate habit  of  spitting. 

The  report  also  includes  an  excellent  summary  of  the  results 
obtained  by  an  inspection  of  93  manufacturing  establishments  and  the 
conditions  found  in  a  certain  proportion  of  weave  and  spinning  rooms 
are  tabulated  as  follows:  I,  Poor  light;  2,  Presence  of  carbon-dioxide 
and  carbon-monoxide  in  the  air;  3,  Non-regulation  of  artificial  moist- 
ure, (a)  excess  of  moisture,  undue  heat,  or  (b)  no  artificial  moisture, 
excessive  heat;  4,  More  or  less  dust  ("fly"  dust  from  sizing,  etc.)  ;  5, 
Lack  of  cleanliness ;  6,  Lack  of  provision  for  a  plentiful  supply  of 
fresh  air.  In  the  majority  of  mills  the  toilet  and  wash  rooms  were 
found  to  be  beyond  criticism ;  but  in  not  a  few  "the  imperative  need  of 
improvement  as  regards  structure,  location,  ventilation  and  common 
decency"  are  pointed  out.  The  number  of  accidents  in  textile  mills, 
considering  the  large  number  of  fast-running  machines,  is  not  large, 
during  a  period  of  almost  five  years  at  the  Pacific  Mills,  with  about 
5,200  employees,  amounting  to  1,000,  classified  as  follows: 

Report  of  the  State  Board  of  Health  of  Massachusetts,  1907,  p.  16. 


2/ 

Accidents  to  employees  of  the  Pacific  Mills,  Lawrence,  Mass.,  August  io,  1900, 

to  July  13,  1905. 

Killed  outright    I 

Fatally   injured    I 

Seriously  injured   (broken  limbs  or  amputation  necessary) 86 

Slightly  injured   910 

Unclassified  (suffered  nervous  shock,  but  physically  uninjured) 2 


1,000 


The  underlying  cause  of  injury  is  given  as  follows: 

Careless   manipulation    539 

Deliberate  carelessness   (taking  chances  of  being  injured,  such  as  cleaning 

machinery    while    running,    etc.) 164 

Inattention  to  surroundings 177 

Carelessness   of   fellow-workman 51 

Unforeseen   liability    60 

Unclassified    9 


In  three  mills  in  Massachusetts  devoted  to  the  manufacture  of 
twine,  cordage,  and  gunny  cloth  from  jute  and  hemp  some  of  the  work- 
rooms are  reported  to  be  exceedingly  dusty  in  spite  of  mechanical  ven- 
tilation and  open  windows.  "Many  of  the  operatives  wear  thick 
bunches  of  fiber  over  mouth  and  nose  as  a  protection.  A  fairly  large 
proportion  of  the  operatives  show  the  effects  of  their  employment, 
looking  pale  and  sickly."  In  the  room  where  the  sisal  hemp  is  fed  into 
breakers  the  air  is  filled  with  dust.  "In  one  of  the  establishments 
the  employees  in  all  departments  look  well  and  strong,  although  the  air 
in  some  parts  contained  considerable  dust."1 

In  five  Massachusetts  carpet  and  rug  factories,  employing  about 
6,000  persons,  about  10  per  cent  of  whom  are  between  the  ages  of  14 
and  16,  the  largest  of  these  factories  shows  some  departments  in 
which  poor  light,  excessive  heat,  moisture,  and  dust  constitute  objec- 
tionable conditions.  In  one  room  there  was  "so  much  fine  cotton  dust 
and  fiber  in  the  air  that  it  is  with  difficulty  one  can  see  across.  This 
dust  is  very  irritating  to  the  nose  and  throat."  In  one  of  the  establish- 
ments the  children  are  described  as  very  small  and  poorly  developed  for 
their  age  "to  be  allowed  to  work  10  hours  and  20  minutes  for  5  days 
in  the  week."  In  another  factory  "about  one-tenth  of  the  employees 
look  sickly."     The  smallest  factory  employs  500  persons,  "has  good 

'Report  of  the  State  Board  of  Health  of  Massachusetts  upon  the  sanitary 
condition  of  factories,  workshops,  etc..  1907,  p.  46. 


28 

light,  adequate  ventilation,  and  commendable  weave  rooms,  and  the 
employees  appear  to  be  in  good  health." 

One  of  the  shoddy  mills  examined  was  poorly  lighted,  inadequately 
ventilated,  dusty,  and  ill  kept ;  the  other  was  light,  clean,  and  well  venti- 
lated. "Some  of  the  women  employed  appeared  to  be  in  poor  physical 
condition.  In  the  six  felt-cloth  factories  examined  the  work  was  found 
to  be  conducted  in  fairly  lighted  and,  apart  from  dust,  adequately  venti- 
lated buildings.  In  each  there  was  more  or  less  dust,  especially  in  the 
picking  and  carding  rooms ;  but  the  amount  was  much  diminished  in 
most  of  them  by  means  of  blower  fans." 

ANIMAL  DUST. 

Of  the  several  classes  of  dust,  that  from  wool  is  considered  to  be 
less  irritating  than  flax  or  cotton,  and  horn  is  believed  to  be  more  irri- 
tating than  bone.  The  conditions  found  in  some  of  the  woolen  mills 
in  Massachusetts  as  regards  light,  ventilation,  and  general  cleanliness 
are  reported  as  far  from  satisfactory;  but  in  the  absence  of  morbidity 
statistics  it  is  difficult  to  determine  the  degree  of  danger  to  which  the 
operatives  are  exposed.  In  the  boot  and  shoe  industry  in  Massachu- 
setts, where  there  is  more  or  less  animal  dust  evolved,  some  effort  is 
being  made  to  remove  the  dust  by  exhaust  flues  attached  to  the  ma- 
chinery. Of  the  373  factories  summarized  by  the  Massachusetts  Board 
of  Health  Report  previously  cited,  "126  are  partially,  and  a  fair  propor- 
tion of  these  are  wholly,  equipped  with  this  means  of  protection ;  in 
88  of  these  126  one  or  more  machines  are  not  so  equipped;  and  in  49 
of  the  88  there  are  rooms  in  which  the  air,  apart  from  the  escaping 
dust,  is  noticeably  bad.  The  number  of  machines  with  means  for  effi- 
cient or  fairly  efficient  removal  of  dust  was  found  to  be  1,630;  the 
number  either  inefficiently  equipped  or  devoid  of  equipment  was  re- 
ported as  2,769.  *  *  *  While  in  general  the  health  of  the  em- 
ployees appears  to  be  fair  to  good,  in  85  factories  a  considerable  pro- 
portion of  them  are  noticeably  pale  and  unhealthy  in  appearance."  The 
pale  and  poorly  nourished  condition  of  youthful  employees  is  also 
emphasized. 

The  dust  and  moisture  involved  in  the  polishing  departments  of  the 
horn  and  celluloid  industry,  and  the  irritating  fumes  given  off  by  a 
"dip"  containing  glacial  acetic  acid,  are  sources  of  possible  injurious 
effects  to  the  employees  . 

In  the  manufacture  of  derby  and  felt  hats,  apart  from  the  exposure 
to  dust  from  the  fur  which  comes  to  the  factory  clipped  from  the  skin, 
there  is  also  a  certain  degree  of  danger  from  cyanide  of  mercury 


29 

with  which  the  fur  is  treated,  in  four  felt-hat  factories  inspected  bj 
the  Massachusetts  Board  of  Health,  "the  employees  appeared  to  be 
healthy."  In  some  of  the  establishments  visited  the  fumes  of  wood 
alcohol  in  the  drying  department  were  markedly  strong.  "The  work- 
men stated  that  they  arc  frequently  troubled  with  headaches,  vertigo, 
smarting  and  burning  of  the  eyes,  and  impairment  of  vision,  and  that 
few  can  remain  at  this  work  longer  than  three  or  four  months  at  a 
time."  This  could  readily  be  prevented  by  the  use  of  "denatured"  alco- 
hol. In  the  "pouncing  process,"  which  consists  in  smoothing  off  the 
rough  hairs  from  the  hat  rim  and  other  parts,  "a  great  deal  of  very 
f?ne  dust  is  given  off." 

Mr.  Frederick  S.  Crum1  gives  the  mortality  rate  from  consumption 
in  Orange,  N.  J.,  as  289.9  as  compared  with  the  average  of  151.0  for 
the  200  small  cities  investigated  by  him,  and  attributes  this  excess  to 
the  fact  that  in  1905  there  were  1,379  employees  engaged  in  the  felt-hat 
industry  in  Orange. 

In  the  brush-making  industry  hogs'  bristles  and  vegetable  fibers  are 
used.  In  seven  brush  factories  in  Massachusetts  "the  general  condi- 
tions were  found  to  be  beyond  criticism  and  the  health  of  the  employees 
appeared  to  be  fair  or  good." 

Hirt  regarded  brush  making  as  a  dangerous  occupation,  as  nearly 
one-half  of  the  deaths  among  the  brush  makers  were  from  consump- 
tion, due  probably  to  the  inhalation  of  the  sharp  fragments  of  bristles. 
There  are  no  adequate  reliable  data  as  to  effects  of  animal  dust 
given  off  in  the  manufacture  of  woolen  goods,  silk,  feather,  fur,  hair, 
horn,  bone,  shell,  ivory,  etc.  It  is  reasonable  to  assume,  however,  that 
the  dust  from  all  these  sources  is  capable  of  setting  up  an  irritation  and 
inflammation  of  the  respiratory  passages,  though  not  as  intensive  as 
that  caused  by  mineral  constituents  of  dust.  In  the  hair,  brush,  and 
wool  industry  there  is  also  some  danger  from  disease  germs. 

OCCUPATIONS    INVOLVING    EXPOSURE    TO    INFECTIVE 
MATTER    IN    DUST. 

RAG.  PAPER,  WOOL  AND  HAIR  INDUSTRY. 

It  has  been  held  for  a  long  time  that  germs  of  infectious  diseases 
like  smallpox,  anthrax,  scarlet  fever,  tuberculosis,  typhus  and  typhoid 
fever,  diphtheria,  measles,  and  cholera  may  cling  to  body  and  bed 
clothes  and  prove  a  source  of  danger  to  those  coming  in  contact  with 

Quarterly  Publication  of  the  American  Statistical  Association,  December, 
1907,  p.  464. 


30 

rags  in  the  rag  business  and  paper  industry.1  The  danger  while  per- 
haps overrated,  is  nevertheless  real  and  can  be  guarded  against  only  by 
a  thorough  disinfection  of  the  rags  by  steam  under  pressure  before 
they  are  handled  at  the  paper  mills. 

The  occupation  is  evidently  inimical  to  health.  Of  4,857  German 
operatives  reported  by  Uff  elmann,  50  per  cent  are  annually  taken  sick ; 
about  34  per  cent  of  those  engaged  in  the  handling  of  dry  rags  suffered 
from  affections  of  the  respiratory  passages,  and  only  21.9  per  cent  of 
those  otherwise  engaged  in  the  same  establishments,  all  of  which  speaks 
strongly  for  the  necessity  of  proper  ventilation  and  exhaust  flues  for 
the  removal  of  dust. 

In  this  connection  it  is  proper  to  refer  to  the  dangers  of  the  so- 
called  "rag  sorters'  "  and  "wool  sorters'  "  disease,  which  are  nothing 
more  or  less  than  anthrax  infection — a  disease  transmissible  from 
animals  to  man  by  means  of  wool,  hides,  hair,  and  horsehair.  Two 
hundred  and  sixty-one  cases  with  67  deaths,  were  reported,  according 
to  Neisser,  in  England  from  1899-1904.  Of  these,  88  occurred  among 
those  engaged  in  the  wool  industry,  70  cases  among  persons  engaged 
in  curled-hair  and  brush  factories,  86  in  persons  engaged  in  tanneries 
and  hide  trades,  and  17  in  other  industrial  pursuits. 

About  59  cases  of  anthrax  infection  were  reported  in  different  parts 
of  Europe  during  the  year  1905.  Ravenal  reported  in  three  localities 
in  Pennsylvania,  during  the  summer  of  1897,  12  cases  among  men  and 
60  in  cattle,  which  were  traced  to  a  tannery  handling  imported  hides 
from  China.  Nichols  reported  26  cases  occurring  in  persons  employed 
in  a  curled-hair  factory  within  three  years. 

The  General  Government  recognizes  the  dangers  by  insisting  upon 
the  exclusion  of  rags,  wool,  and  hides  coming  from  infected  districts 
during  the  prevalence  of  cholera,  anthrax,  and  typhus  fever  and  their 
proper  disinfection  at  all  times.  While  anthrax  is  not  a  very  common 
disease  among  American  domestic  animals,  local  pustular  infections  and 
carbuncle  are  by  no  means  infrequent,  and  might  well  be  guarded 
against,  as  in  some  of  the  European  countries,  where  recourse  is  had 
tc  disinfection  of  the  raw  material,  special  blower  apparatus  for  the 
removal  of  dust,  repeated  disinfection  of  the  premises,  and  prompt  treat- 
ment of  all  slight  wounds  and  abrasions. 

The  material  from  which  paper  is  made  includes  rags,  burlap,  old 
paper,  and  wood  pulp.  The  rags  are  chiefly  imported  from  foreign 
countries,  arriving  in  a  baled  condition,  and  after  opening  are  sub- 

!The  State  of  Maine  requires  evidence  of  successful  vaccination  in  persons 
engaged  in  the  rag  industry  or  those  employed  in  the  manufacture  of  paper  from 
foreign  and  domestic  rags. 


31 

jectcd  to  a  number  of  processes  for  the  purpose  of  cleaning  and  dis- 
integration. The  "beating,  thrashing,"  and  "chopping"  process  is 
carried  on  by  machines  and  is  attended  by  the  e  cape  of  more  or  lesi 
dust.  The  quantity  naturally  varies  with  the  <  leanline  of  the  itock. 
In  the  observations  of  about  80  establishments,  the  Massachusetts  Board 
of  Health  found  that  with  the  usual  grade  of  stock,  no  matter  what 
kind  of  "duster"  or  "thrasher"  is  used,  a  considerable  amount  of  dust  is 
also  evolved  in  the  "chopping"  process,  and  in  spite  of  exhaust  fans 
and  dust  pipes  some  dust  will  escape.  The  men  engaged  in  the  collec- 
tion and  baling  of  this  dust  are  usually  provided  with  respirators.  In 
a  majority  of  the  mills  visited  a  proportion  of  the  employees  are  exposed 
to  an  excessive  quantity  of  dirt,  dust,  and  lint,  and  in  most  of  this 
majority  the  persons  so  exposed  show  not  a  few  who  are  pale  and  sickly 
in  appearance.  A  comparison  of  the  death  rate  from  tuberculosis, 
pneumonia,  and  bronchitis  at  Holyoke,  the  center  of  this  industry  in 
Massachusetts,  with  those  of  the  State  at  large,  showed  "that  the 
Holyoke  rates  were  under  rather  than  over  the  average."1 

OCCUPATIONS  INVOLVING  EXPOSURE  TO  POISONOUS 

DUST. 

LEAD  DUST. 

All  occupations  in  which  lead  is  employed  and  in  which  particles 
of  lead  may  be  inhaled,  swallowed,  or  absorbed  by  the  skin  must  be 
regarded  as  dangerous  to  health.  Lead  poisoning  in  its  various  forms, 
such  as  the  lead  habit,  characterized  by  loss  of  weight,  anaemia,  sallow 
skin,  a  blue  line  along  the  gums,  offensive  breath,  a  sweetish  taste  and 
diminished  salivary  secretion,  lead  colic,  "lead  paralysis,  wrist  drop, 
painful  affections  of  the  lower  extremities,  and  other  grave  nervous 
diseases,  is  frequently  seen  in  artisans.  It  attacks  persons  employed  in 
the  roasting  of  lead  ores,  in  the  manufacture  of  white  and  red  lead, 
acetate  and  chromate  of  lead,  china  and  pottery,  artificial  flowers ;  also 
painters,  plumbers,  varnishers,  type  founders,  typesetters,  file  cutters, 
glass  and  gem  cutters,  electricians  (especially  those  employed  in  charg- 
ing storage  batteries),  persons  engaged  in  enameling,  dyeing,  printing, 
working  in  rubber  goods,  weighted  silk,  and  glazing  of  paper,  and  many 
other  occupations  involving  the  employment  of  lead. 

Doctor  Teleki,  of  Vienna,  in  1906  reported  several  cases  of  lead 
poisoning  in  females  and  young  girls,  contracted  in  fringe  making,  the 
silk  having  been  weighted  by  a  solution  of  sugar  of  lead. 

'Report  of  the  State  Board  of  Health  of  Massachusetts  upon  the  sanitary 
condition  of  factories,  workshops,  etc.,  1907. 


32 

Of  999  employees  in  Prussian  lead  smelters  during  the  year  1905, 
177  suffered  from  lead  colic  or  lead  palsy,  involving  3,056  days'  loss 
of  work;  and  of  4,789  engaged  in  zinc  smelters,  50  of  the  employees, 
with  2,217  days'  loss  of  work,  were  thus  affected. 

In  Europe  a  most  marked  reduction  in  the  morbidity  and  mortality 
has  taken  place  during  the  past  ten  years,  coincident  with  the  enforce- 
ment of  preventive  measures.  The  number  of  cases  of  lead  poisoning 
in  England,  where  report  is  compulsory,  has  been  reduced  from  1,278 
cases  in  1898  to  592  cases  in  1905.  While  most  of  the  cases  occurred 
in  sugar-of-lead  works  and  potteries,  a  considerable  number  were  also 
reported  in  the  other  occupations  already  referred  to.  The  percentage 
of  severe  cases  in  men  was  23.9,  as  compared  with  13.9  in  females — 
perhaps  because  the  latter  have  cleaner  habits  and  possibly  also  stop 
work  more  promptly  upon  the  appearance  of  the  first  symptoms. 

In  Paris  it  is  estimated  that  over  30,000  persons  are  engaged  in 
occupations  involving  exposure  to  lead,  and  of  the  14,000  painters  and 
varnishers  employed  there  an  average  of  250  are  treated  annually  in 
the  hospitals  for  lead  poisoning. 

File  cutters  are  not  only  subjected  to  an  irritant  dust,  but  also  to 
lead  poisoning,  because  the  file  in  cutting  is  being  held  upon  a  leaden 
bed  "and  particles  of  lead  are  inhaled  with  the  dust  and  may  also  be 
absorbed  by  the  fingers  in  handling  the  stiddy."  The  mortality  figure 
for  plumbism,  in  1890-1892,  was  no  less  than  75. 1 

The  greatest  danger  in  lead  works  is  from  inhalation  of  the  lead  dust 
and  fumes ;  hence  a  special  spray  apparatus  and  exhausters  have  been 
designed,  and  employees  have  been  taught  to  protect  their  hands  with 
gloves  and  the  mouth  and  nose  with  respirators. 

In  the  pottery  industry,  where  the  danger  arises  from  the  glazes, 
the  flux  being  made  of  litharge,  clay,  and  flint,  it  has  been  found  that 
the  danger  can  be  very  much  reduced  by  using  only  8  per  cent  of  car- 
bonate of  lead  in  the  form  of  a  "double-fritted  silicate,"  instead  of  the 
older  method,  in  which  from  13  to  24  per  cent  of  lead  carbonate  was 
employed. 

Smoking  should  be  forbidden  during  the  working  hours,  and  the 
work  should  be  done  in  a  special  suit,  frequently  washed.  The  hands, 
face,  and  nostrils  should  be  thoroughly  washed  with  soap  and  water 
upon  cessation  of  work,  and  the  mouth  and  throat  rinsed  with  a  watery 
solution  of  tartrate  of  ammonia  before  eating  and  drinking.  The  same 
rules  are  applicable  to  painters,  who  would  likewise  find  it  of  benefit 
to  soften  old  paints  with  an  alkali  (weak  lye)  before  scraping  and  to 
keep  the  handles  of  tools  clean  from  deposits. 

1  Dangerous  Trades,  Oliver,  1902,  p.  138. 


33 

THE  LEAD   INDUSTRY    IN    MASSACHUSETTS. 

The  report  of  the  Massachusetts  Board  of  Health2  gives  a  very 
complete  account  of  the  conditions  which  obtain  in  the  manufacture  of 
lead  compounds  in  the  several  factories  visited.  "The  men  who  attend 
the  grinding  machines  arc  of  a  very  different  class  from  those  who 
empty  the  stacks,  and  since  they  are  not  exposed  to  lead  dust  they  do 
not  suffer  from  lead  poisoning  and  are  comparatively  healthy.  Those 
who  empty  the  stacks  do  not  remain  long  at  work.  It  is  said  that  this 
is  due  in  part  to  the  disagreeable  nature  of  the  work,  in  part  to  the 
fact  that  they  are  largely  roving  characters,  who  do  not  care  to  work 
more  than  a  few  days  occasionally,  and  in  part  to  the  fact  that  they 
acquire  lead  poisoning  and  are  obliged  to  quit.  Even  those  of  good 
intentions  rarely  work  more  than  a  month." 

One  establishment  is  referred  to  where  white  lead  is  made  by  the 
"wet  process,"  with  no  evolution  of  dust,  and  there  is  no  history  of 
lead  poisoning.  In  a  "red-lead"  factory,  also,  the  general  process  is 
commended,  especially  the  absence  of  appreciable  amounts  of  dust, 
and  the  intelligence  of  the  workmen,  who  are  mindful  of  the  dangers 
and  who,  with  an  experience  of  6  to  25  years,  appear  well  and  strong. 
In  one  of  the  lead-oxide  works  more  or  less  dust  escapes  into  the  air 
during  the  transfer  to  the  mill  and  packing  it  into  barrels.  The  men 
wear  respirators,  and  each  man  washes  carefully  and  changes  all  his 
clothes  before  leaving  the  establishment.  In  another  establishment 
"all  of  the  40  employees  appeared  to  be  in  good  health,  and  the  con- 
ditions everywhere  were  found  to  be  commendable." 

In  the  lead-pipe  and  plumbers'-supplies  factories  the  lead  fumes 
are  carried  away  by  hoods  and  exhaust  pipes,  and  in  no  instance  was 
it  possible  to  trace  a  case  of  lead  poisoning  to  faulty  methods.  All 
of  the  employees  observed  the  necessary  precautions  and  appeared 
to  be  in  good  health.  In  the  manufacture  of  solder  the  same  precau- 
tions are  employed,  and  although  in  the  establishment  described,  rats. 
cats,  and  dogs  appear  to  succumb  to  lead  poisoning,  only  one  case  of 
lead  poisoning  occurred  among  the  employees  in  35  years. 

In  the  pottery  industry  it  is  said  that  lead  poisoning  is  almost 
unknown  in  the  six  establishments  visited ;  only  two  cases  occurred 
a  few  years  ago  in  girls  who  applied  the  glaze.  A  possible  explanation 
for  this  gratifying  contrast  to  conditions  observed  in  French  and 
English  potteries  may  be  found  in  the  fact  "that  the  persons  engaged 
in  this  industry  appear  to  be  of  good  intelligence  and  understand  thor- 

iPage  99- 


34 

oughly  the  importance  of  care  and  strict  personal  cleanliness,  and  that 
the  employers  provide  ample  means  for  its  maintenance." 

Wire  and  wire-cloth  making  as  carried  on  in  some  of  the  plants 
visited  in  Massachusetts  appears  to  be  attended,  in  the  opinion  of 
Doctor  Hanson,1  by  "avoidable  dangerous  conditions."  "After  the 
wire  is  hardened  by  being  run  into  crude  oil,  it  is  passed  through  ket- 
tles of  molten  lead  inside  the  tempering  furnaces  and  is  then  finished 
and  wound  for  shipment.  From  the  tempering  furnaces  dense  blue 
fumes  arise  and  envelop  the  men  whose  work  it  is  to  feed  and  tend 
them.  Occasional  cases  of  lead  poisoning  occur  in  this  department. 
In.  one  establishment  one  of  the  employees  of  5  years'  experience  shows 
the  characteristic  blue  line  of  lead  poisoning  on  the  gums,  and  another 
of  14  years'  experience,  in  the  same  room,  has  a  history  of  'wrist-drop' 
and  other  evidence  of  chronic  poisoning.  Efficient  mechanical  ventila- 
tion is  most  necessary  in  this  work,  but  it  is  not  always  provided."2 

Doctor  Hanson,  evidently  referring  to  the  same  factory,  writes : 
"All  of  the  employees  in  this  room  worked  11  hours  a  day  and  had 
irregular  hours  for  eating.  There  were  no  rules  concerning  the  duties 
of  the  employers  or  those  of  the  persons  employed  in  order  to  avoid 
this  serious  danger.  On  the  contrary,  the  hoods  and  blowers  and  top 
ventilators  for  the  lead  and  other  fumes  were  found  to  be  distinctly 
inefficient,  and  over  one  large  furnace  there  was  no  protection  of  any 
sort,  the  appliances  having  been  broken  years  before  and  none  renewed, 
so  that  all  the  fumes  mingled  at  once  with  the  air  of  the  room." 

In  making  shingle  stains  pigments  like  chromate  of  lead,  zinc  oxide, 
iron  oxide,  and  Prussian  blue  are  used,  and  in  the  two  establishments 
visited  the  men  appeared  to  be  careless  in  the  matter  of  handling  the 
pigments. 3  In  the  manufacture  of  paints,  colors,  and  varnishes  much 
of  the  work  is  done  outdoors  by  men  who  have  worked  from  6  to  20 
years ;  the  man  who  makes  the  lead  colors  has  worked  17  years  without 
sickness.4  The  last  cases  of  poisoning  at  this  establishment  occurred 
16  years  ago,  when  a  number  of  inexperienced  men  were  poisoned  with 
Paris  green.  In  a  color  and  mordant  factory  where  anilin  colors,  log- 
wood, starch,  sodium  dichromate,  etc.,  are  used,  "about  one  in  five  of 
the  employees  is  noticeably  pale  and  sallow,  and  inflamed  eyes  were  not 
uncommon."  The  latter  condition  is  ascribed  to  the  sodium  dichromate. 
In  the  manufacture  of  "whiting"  about  half  of  the  58  men  employed 
in  three  establishments  visited  "looked  to  be  in  poor  condition." 

'"The  effect  of  industry  on  health,"  Boston  Med.  Journal,  No.  14,  April  4, 
1907,  Wm.  C.  Hanson. 

2Report  of  the  State  Board  of  Health  of  Massachusetts,  1907,  p.  91. 
3  Page  106.  4Page  107. 


35 


PRINTERS,  TYJ'E  FOUNDERS,  A XI;  TYPESETTERS. 

The  mortality  of  printers  in  England  is  high,  being  1,096  per  10,000, 
as  against  953  for  all  occupied  males  and  602  for  agriculturalists.' 
According  to  Schuler,  of  1,000  Swiss  typesetters  and  founders,  304.7 
are  annually  taken  sick,  and  of  printers  250.  Diseases  of  the  digestive 
organs  predominate  (78  per  1,000).  Diseases  of  the  respiratory  pass- 
ages come  next  (75  per  1,000).  Sommerfeld  states  that  among  38 
occupations  tabulated  by  him  the  printers  occupy  the  fifth  rank  in  the 
number  of  deaths  from  tuberculosis.  Albrecht  reports  that  the  statis- 
tics of  the  Berlin  Sick  Benefit  Insurance  Company  covering  a  period  of 
^  years  show  that  48.13  per  cent  of  the  deaths  among  printers  are 
caused  by  consumption.2 

This  may  be  due  in  part  to  the  fact  that  many  weaklings  engage  in 
this  occupation,  but  the  work  itself  is  often  performed  in  most  unfa- 
vorable environments  and  in  an  impure  and  dusty  atmosphere,  which 
has  been  found  to  contain  traces  of  lead,  arsenic,  and  antimony.  Spe- 
cial attention  should  be  paid  to  proper  ventilation,  and  particularly  to 
the  collection  and  removal  of  dust  from  the  type  cases.  One  gram  of 
this  dust  has  been  found  to  contain  57.7  mgr.  of  lead,  186.8  mgr.  of 
antimony,  and  traces  of  arsenic3  Strasesr  has  suggested  a  type  case 
with  perforated  tin  bottom  which  is  placed  within  another  case,  so  as  to 
facilitate  the  collection  and  proper  disposition  of  this  injurious  form 
of  dust. 

A  recent  study  of  the  "Health  of  Printers"  by  George  A.  Stevens, 
in  the  Twenty-fourth  Annual  Report  of  the  Bureau  of  Labor  Statistics 
of  New  York,  based  on  the  records  of  the  International  Typographical 
Union  and  the  London  (England)  Society  of  Compositors,  shows 
clearly  the  very  high  death  rate  from  tuberculosis  among  printers. 

The  following  table  gives  for  the  years  1901  to  1905  the  annual 
death  rates  per  1,000  from  the  leading  causes  and  from  all  causes 
among  compositors  in  certain  localities. 


tDangerous  Trades,  Oliver,  p.  151. 

2Roth  Kompendium  der  Gewerbe-Krankheiten.  Berlin,  1904.  p.  56. 

3Rueszahegyi,  Archiv,  fuer  Hygiene.  III.  p.  522. 


36 


ANNUAL  DEATH  RATE  PER  t.ooo  FROM  PRINCIPAL  CAUSES  AND  ALL  CAUSES 
AMONG  COMPOSITORS  IN  CERTAIN  LOCALITIES,  FOR  THE  FIVE  YEARS 
1901    TO    1905.  ' 


[From    Twenty-fourth 

Annual    Report   of  the    Bureau    of    Labor    Statistics,     1 

906.] 

Death  rate  per  1,000. 

0  £ « 

•£°° 

.2  "2  >» 

J  a! 

9  g  - 

a 
0 

5 

O  « 

O    (A 
™    .. 

U 

c 

>> 

s  -  £ 

«.~  "> 

a  a 

C  u 
be 

u 

B 

O  *j 
.„    >> 

s « 

s «  • 

u.2  -i 

•5     "i 

13 
C 

<u  3 

0 

4J 

u 

< 

New   York   City.  . 

Other    New    York 

State   

3.82 
2.54 
3-48 

2.42 

3-65 
3-38 

3-34 
3-69 

2.42 

•97 

2.03 

1-57 
.70 

1 .07 

1.30 
.67 

1.91 
1.49 
1.89 

1 .04 
2.26 

i-33 

1.44 
1. 16 

I.63 

•70 

I.38 
.98 
•70 

I  .02 

1.08 

•Si 

i-37 
1 .67 

i-4S 
1.44 

i-39 

i-37 

i-39 
1.97 

0.99 

•97 

.98 

•45 
•52 

•74 

.76 
•51 

0.89 

.61 

.82 
.72 

.60 

.64 
.19 

16.32 

11 .  14 

14-94 
10. 12 
12.35 

12.20 

12.63 
12. 19 

Total   New   York 
State   

Chicago,   III 

Philadelphia,  Pa. 
All  other  United 

States    

Total      United 

London,  England 

A  second  table  gives  for  the  same  period  the  per  cent  of  deaths 
due  to  tuberculosis  in  the  selected  localities  for  compositors  and  for 
all  persons  20  years  of  age  and  over.  It  will  be  seen  that  in  all  the 
localities  the  percentage  of  deaths  due  to  tuberculosis  is  very  much 
higher  for  compositors  than  for  all  persons  20  years  of  age  and  over 
in  the  same  community.  For  New  York  State  outside  of  New  York 
City  and  for  London,  England,  the  percentage  for  compositors  is  more 
than  double  that  for  the  population  20  years  of  age  and  over  as  a  whole. 

PER  CENT  OF  DEATHS  FROM  TUBERCULOSIS  OF  THE  LUNGS  AND  OTHER  RES- 
PIRATORY ORGANS  OF  PERSONS  20  YEARS  OF  AGE  AND  OVER  AND  OF 
COMPOSITORS   IN   CERTAIN   LOCALITIES:    1901   TO   1903. 

[From  the  Twenty-fourth  Annual  Report  of  the  Bureau    of    Labor    Statistics    of    New    York, 

p.  exxv.] 


Per  cent  of  deaths   in — 


Locality. 


1901. 

1902. 

1903. 

1904. 

1905. 

17.7 

17-7 

17.6 

16.5 

17.4 

11. 4 

10.9 

10.6 

10.6 

10.6 

14-5 

14.2 

14.0 

13-6 

13-9 

14.9 

14.6 

14-5 

16.0 

17.0 

16.3 

15-5 

15-8 

16.8 

15-9 

14.9 

13-9 

15-3 

15.0 

13-6 

36. 5 

17.0 

18.2 

26.6 

21 . 1 

29.2 

32.3 

10. s 

21 .4 

16.0 

34-9 

20.8 

17. 1 

25-5 

20. 1 

26.9 

28.0 

28.0 

7-7 

33-3 

43-8 

50.0 

7-1 

13-3 

35-7 

3i-i 

29.9 

24.0 

26.0 

29.2 

32.3 

27.8 

22.2 

24.4 

27.2 

32.0 

26.2 

36.4 

28.2 

29. 1      | 

Five 
years. 


ALL  PERSONS  20  YEARS  OF  AGE  AND  OVER 

New  York  City 

Other  New  York  State 

Total  New  York  State 

Chicago,  111 

Philadelphia,    Pa 4... 

London,    England    

COMPOSITORS. 

New  York  City   

Other  New  York  State 

Total   New  York  State 

Chicago,  111 

Philadelphia,    Pa 

All   other   United    States 

Total    United    States 

London,   England    


17.4 
10.8 
14.0 
15-4 
16. 1 
14. 5 


23-4 
22.8 
23-3 
23-9 
29.6 
27.7 
26.4 
30.2 


37 

Mr.  Stevens,  in  commenting  on  the  high  death  rate  from  tubercu- 
losis among  compositors,  says:  "Scarcely  any  other  occupation  fur- 
nishes so  large  a  quota  of  victims  from  consumption.  The  do: 
life  of  printers  is  parallel  to  that  of  other  artisans  in  equal  financial 
circumstances.  As  wages  go  in  these  days,  they  are  fairly  compen- 
sated for  their  labor,  thus  enabling  them  to  have  homes  as  healthful 
as  may  be  procured  by  the  best  paid  workmen  in  any  community. 
Neither  can  it  be  said  that  compositors  are  ill  nourished  and  therefore 
rendered  more  susceptible  to  the  insidious  action  of  tubercle  bacilli. 
The  determining  cause  of  their  susceptibility  to  the  harmful  process 
of  the  'great  white  plague'  lies  in  a  different  direction — to  the  neglect 
of  sanitary  precautions  in  far  too  many  composing  rooms." 

With  proper  attention  to  sanitary  conditions  in  the  composing  rooms 
the  death  rate  from  consumption  could  undoubtedly  be  very  materially 
reduced.  The  excellent  results  that  have  come  from  improved  sanita- 
tion in  workrooms  appear  from  the  mortality  statistics  for  1905  of  the 
National  Organization  of  Printers  in  Germany.  "The  average  mem- 
bership of  the  union  in  that  year  was  44,236,  of  whom  283,  or  6.40  per 
1,000,  died  from  all  causes,  while  134  of  the  total  were  affected  with 
diseases  of  the  respiratory  system,  from  which  the  death  rate  was  3.03,' 
tuberculosis  not  being  separated  in  the  tabular  presentation."3 

The  regulations  of  the  Federal  Council  of  the  German  Empire  which 
control  sanitary  conditions  in  German  printing  houses  (put  into  effect 
July  31,  1897),  will  indicate  the  means  by  which  such  low  death  rates 
have  been  brought  about.    The  regulations  are  given  in  full. 

I.  In  rooms  in  which  persons  are  employed  in  setting  up  type  or  manufacture 
of  type  or  stereotype  plates  the  following  provisions  apply : 

"l.  The  floor  of  workrooms  must  not  be  sunk  deeper  than  half  a  meter  (1.64 
feet)  below  the  ground.  Exceptions  may  only  be  granted  by  the  higher  admin- 
istrative authority  where  hygienic  conditions  are  secured  by  a  dry  area  and  ample 
means  of  lighting  and  ventilating  the  rooms. 

"Attics  shall  only  be  used  as  workrooms  if  the  roof  is  underdone  with  lath 
and  plaster. 

"2.  In  workrooms  in  which  the  manufacture  of  type  or  sterotype  plates  is 
carried  on  the  number  of  persons  must  not  exceed  such  as  would  allow  at  least 
15  cubic  meters  of  air  space  (529.74  cubic  feet)  to  each.  In  the  rooms  in  which 
persons  are  employed  only  in  other  processes  there  must  be  at  least  12  cubic 
meters  of  air  space  (423.79  cubic  feet)  to  each  person. 

JThe  corresponding  death  rate  among  compositors  in  Xew  York  City  was 
7.17;  other  New  York  State,  4.04;  total  New  York  State,  6.34;  Chicago,  5.04; 
Philadelphia,  4.70;  total  United  States,  5.02,  and  London,  England,  5.50. 

2Twenty-fourth  Annual  Report  of  the  Bureau  of  Labor  Statistics  of  New 
York ;  1906,  p.  exxxvii. 


38 

"In  cases  of  exceptional  temporary  pressure  the  higher  administrative 
authority  may,  on  the  application  of  the  employer,  permit  a  larger  number  in  the 
workrooms  for  at  the  most  30  days  in  the  year,  but  not  more  than  will  allow  10 
cubic  meters  of  air  space  (353.16  cubic  feet)  for  each  person. 

"3.  The  rooms  must  be  at  least  2.60  meters  (8.528  feet)  in  height  where  a 
minimum  15  cubic  meters  are  allowed  for  each  person,  in  other  cases  at  least  3 
meters  (9.84  feet)  in  height. 

"The  rooms  must  be  provided  with  windows  which  are  sufficient  in  number 
and  size  to  let  in  ample  light  for  every  part  of  the  work.  The  windows  must 
be  so  constructed  that  they  will  open  and  admit  of  complete  renewal  of  air  in 
workrooms. 

"Workrooms  with  sloping  roofs  must  have  an  average  height  equal  to  the 
measurements  given  in  the  first  paragraph  of  this  section. 

"4-  The  rooms  must  be  laid  with  a  close-fitting  impervious  floor,  which  can 
be  cleared  of  dust  by  moist  methods.  Wooden  floors  must  be  smoothly  planed, 
and  boards  fitted  to  prevent  penetration  of  moisture. 

"All  walls  and  ceilings  must,  if  they  are  not  of  a  smooth,  washable  surface 
or  painted  in  oil,  be  lime-washed  at  least  once  a  year.  If  the  walls  and  ceilings 
are  of  a  smooth  washable  surface  or  painted  in  oil,  they  must  be  washed  at  least 
once  a  year,  and  the  oil  paint  must,  if  varnished,  be  removed  once  in  ten  years, 
and  if  not  varnished,  once  in  five  years. 

"The  compositors'  shelves  and  stands  for  type  boxes  must  be  either  closely 
ranged  round  the  room  on  the  floor  so  that  no  dust  can  collect  underneath,  or  be 
fitted  with  long  legs  so  that  the  floor  can  be  easily  cleared  of  dust  underneath. 

"5.  The  workrooms  must  be  cleaned  and  thoroughly  aired  at  least  once  a  day, 
and  during  the  working  hours  means  must  be  taken  to  secure  constant 
ventilation. 

"6.  The  melting  vessel  for  type  or  stereotype  metal  must  be  covered  with 
a  hood  provided  with  exhaust  ventilation  or  chimney  with  sufficient  draft  to 
draw  the   fumes  to  the  outer  air. 

"Type  founding  and  melting  may  only  be  carried  on  in  rooms  separate  from 
other  processes. 

"7.  The  rooms  and  fittings,  particularly  the  walls,  cornices,  and  stands  for 
type,  must  be  thoroughly  cleaned  twice  a  year  at  least.  The  floors  must  be 
washed  or  rubbed  over  with  a  damp  cloth  so  as  to  remove  dust  once  a  day  at 
least. 

"8.  The  type  boxes  must  be  cleansed  before  they  are  put  in  use,  and  again  as 
often  as  necessary,  but  not  less  than  twice  at  least  in  the  year. 

"The  boxes  shall  only  be  dusted  out  with  a  bellows  in  the  open  air,  and  this 
work  shall  not  be  done  by  young  persons. 

"9.  In  every  workroom  spittoons  filled  with  water,  and  one  at  least  for  every 
five  persons,  must  be  provided.     Workers  are  forbidden  to  spit  upon  the  floor. 

"10.  Sufficient  washing  appliances  with  soap,  and  at  least  one  towel  a  week 
for  each  worker,  must  be  provided  in  or  as  near  as  possible  to  the  workrooms 
for  compositors,  cutters,  and  polishers. 

"One  wash  hand  basin  must  be  provided  for  every  five  workers,  with  an  ample 
supply  of  water.    The  wash  basin  after  its  use  by  each  person  must  be  emptied. 

"The  employer  must  make  strict  provision  for  the  use  of  the  washing  appli- 
ances by  workers  before  every  meal,  and  before  leaving  their  work. 

"11.  Clothes  put  off  during  working  hours  must  either  be  kept  outside  the 


39 

workroom  or  hung  up  in  wardrobes  with  closely  fitting  doors  or  curtains,  which 
arc  so  shut  or  drawn  as  to  prevent  penetration  of  dust. 

"12.  Artificial  means  of  lighting  which  tend  to  raise  the  temperature  of  the 
rooms  must  be  so  arranged  or  provided  with  counteracting  measures,  that  the 
heat  of  the  workrooms  shall  not  be  unduly  raised. 

"13.  The  employer  must  draw  up  rules  binding  on  the  workers,  which  will 
insure  the  full  observance  of  the  provisions  in  sections  8,  9,  10,  and  11.  In  an 
establishment  where  as  a  rule  twenty  people  are  employed  these  rule',  shall  be 
inserted  in  the  general  factory  regulations,  in  accordance  with  section  134a  of  th<- 
Industrial  Code. 

"II.  In  every  workroom  a  notice  must  be  posted,  signed  by  the  local  police 
authority,  attesting  to  the  correctness  of  the  statements  concerning  (a)  the 
length,  height,  and  breadth  of  rooms,  (b)  the  air  space  in  cubic  measure,  (c)  and 
the  number  of  workers  permitted  in  each  room. 

"A  copy  of  rules  I  to  13  must  be  affixed  where  it  can  be  easily  read  by  all 
persons  affected." 

III.  Provides  for  the  method  of  permitting  the  exceptions  named  above  in 
sections  2  and  3,  and  makes  it  a  condition  of  reduction  in  cubic  air  space  for  each 
person  employed  as  typefounder  or  compositor,  that  there  shall  be  adequate 
mechanical  ventilation  for  regulating  temperature  and  carrying  off  products  of 
combustion  from  workrooms. 

For  an  interesting  report  on  plumbism  and  the  health  of  employees 
in  the  Government  Printing  Office,  Washington,  D.  C,  by  Wm.  J.  Man- 
ning, M.  D.,  see  Appendix  A.  . 

ARSENICAL  DUST. 

Arsenic  is  used  in  the  manufacture  of  green  pigments  such  as  arse- 
nite  of  copper  (Scheele's  green)  and  aceto-arsenite  of  copper  (Schwein- 
fnrt  or  Paris  green).  These  pigments  are  used  in  connection  with  wall 
paper,  box  and  card  factories,  the  cretonne  industry,  and  artificial 
flowers,  possibly  also  in  other  occupations.  White  arsenic  is  also  used 
in  the  manufacture  of  shot,  preservation  of  furs,  and  in  taxidermy,  and 
for  many  other  purposes. 

In  the  manufacture  of  arsenate  of  lead  in  Massachusetts  no  objec- 
tionable features  were  observed.1  Reference  has  already  been  made 
to  cases  of  poisoning  with  Paris  green. 

One  of  the  factory  inspectors  of  East  London  reported  last  year  a 
number  of  cases  of  arsenical  poisoning  in  persons  engaged  in  the  manu- 
facture of  a  powder  used  in  a  "dip"  for  scabby  sheep.  The  powder 
contained  arsenic  in  large  amounts  and  was  packed  in  a  dry  state  in 
paper  boxes.  Arsenical  dust  may  be  inhaled,  but  more  frequently 
absorption  takes  place  through  the  skin,  and  causes  a  train  of  symp- 
toms, characterized  by  derangements  of  the  stomach,  sore  mouth,  dry 

JReport  of  the  State  Board  of  Health  of  Massachusetts.  1007.  p.   104. 


40 

tongue,  thirst,  and  a  burning  sensation  in  the  throat.  In  the  majority 
of  instances  the  symptoms  become  chronic,  lasting  for  months  and 
years,  and  terminating  in  a  general  breakdown  of  the  system,  pre- 
ceded by  skin  eruptions,  obstinate  ulcers,  and  inflammation  of  the 
peripheral  nerves. 

In  the  prevention  of  injurious  effects,  special  attention  must  be  paid 
to  wet  processes ;  so,  for  example,  the  dusting  of  green  pigments  in  the 
manufacture  of  artificial  leaves  and  flowers  from  a  dredging  box  is 
wholly  unjustifiable.  As  a  matter  of  fact  the  use  of  arsenical  pigments 
should  be  dispensed  with  by  the  substitution  of  coal-tar  colors.  The 
hands  should  always  be  protected  with  rubber  gloves,  the  air  passages 
with  respirators,  and  strict  cleanliness  of  the  skin  and  clothing  should 
be  observed. 

OCCUPATIONS   INVOLVING  EXPOSURE  TO   IRRITATING 
OR    POISONOUS    GASES    OR   VAPORS. 

A  large  number  of  occupations  involve  the  inhalation  of  irritating 
and  even  poisonous  gases  and  fumes.  The  danger  may  be  very  much 
reduced  by  proper  factory  sanitation,  such  as  I,  condensation;  2,  ab- 
sorption by  water  or.  chemicals ;  3,  destructive  distillation  by  heat  in  a 
closed  vessel ;  4,  combustion  of  gases  that  can  be  burned ;  5,  forced 
ventilation  and  the  discharge  of  gases  into  the  air  at  a  great  height.  In 
addition  to  these  precautions  much  attention  must  be  paid  on  the  part 
of  the  operatives  themselves  to  personal  hygiene  and  the  use  of  respira- 
tors. Many  of  the  employees  in  so-called  dangerous  trades  do  not 
always  avail  themselves  of  the  safeguards  offered  and  are  opposed  to 
the  use  of  respirators.  We  shall  first  briefly  enumerate  the  less  injuri- 
ous but  nevertheless  irritating  gases  and  fumes,  like  sulphur  dioxide, 
hydrochloric  acid  and  nitrous  fumes,  ammonia  and  chlorine,  which  in 
small  amounts  cause  more  or  less  irritation  of  the  air  passages  and  a 
tickling  cough,  while  in  a  more  concentrated  form  they  are  productive 
of  acute  and  chronic  catarrhs  and  constitutional  symptoms. 

SULPHUR  DIOXIDE 

This  gas  is  believed  to  be  a  blood  poison,  on  account  of  its  affinity 
for  oxygen.  It  is  evolved  in  smelting  works,  match  factories,  and  in 
the  manufacture  of  sulphuric  acid.  It  is  also  used  as  a  bleaching  agent 
for  cotton  goods  and  straw  hats  and  in  the  preparation  of  hops  and 
dried  fruit.  The  employees,  if  not  primarily  in  good  health,  are  said  to 
suffer  from  respiratory  and  digestive  disorders,  heartburn,  and  pain  in 


41 

the  stomach,  and  arc  frequently  sallow  and  ana.-mic.  A  gradual  toler- 
ance may  be  established,  and  the  danger  is  very  slight  if  free  ventila- 
tion is  provided.  When  evolved  in  the  open  air,  and  hence  largely 
diluted,  it  does  not  produce  any  injurious  effects,  except  in  very  sus- 
ceptible persons ;  indeed  the  people  around  Vesuvius  told  Doctor  De 
Chaumont  that  the  sulphur  fumes  are  good  for  their  health. 

The  Massachusetts  Board  of  Health  found  that,  in  the  straw-hat 
factories  visited  in  Massachusetts,  "  the  employees  are  exposed  to  the 
sulphur  fumes  only  when  the  doors  are  opened  for  the  removal  of  the 
stock ;  but  they  do  not  enter  until  the  fumes  have  escaped  or  have  been 
driven  out."  The  men  do  not  wear  respirators  in  this  or  the  other 
process  of  bleaching,  which  is  done  by  immersion  of  the  stock  in  a 
chemical  water  bath.  The  men  who  were  interviewed  state  that  "neither 
process  causes  anything  more  than  a  temporary  irritation  of  the  throat, 
and  that  many  of  them  have  worked  in  this  department  for  many 
years."1 

HYDROCHLORIC  ACID. 

Hydrochloric-acid  vapors  are  evolved  from  alkali  works  and  in  the 
pickling  process  of  galvanizing  works  or  otherwise,  and,  apart  from 
being  destructive  to  vegetation  around  the  immediate  vicinity,  are 
also  very  irritating,  and  even  in  small  volumes  may  produce  inflamma- 
tion of  the  eyes  and  of  the  respiratory  passages.  In  a  more  concen- 
trated form  they  have  produced  caustic  effects  on  the  tips  and  edges  of 
the  tongue,  ulcerations  of  the  nasal  wall  and  throat,  bronchial  catarrh, 
pneumonia,  difficult  breathing,  and  stupor.  Lehmann2  considers  the 
extreme  limit  to  which  these  vapors  may  be  contained  in  the  air  i/io 
cf  volume  per  1,000,  and  relates  a  case  where  even  0.5  per  1,000  pro- 
duced unpleasant  symptoms  in  a  robust  man.  Pettenkoffer.s  on  the 
other  hand,  states  that  as  much  as  1  part  per  1,000  can  be  borne  by  those 
accustomed  to  it.  The  workmen  in  galvanizing  works  are  also  sub- 
jected to  fumes  arising  from  the  sal  ammoniac  thrown  upon  the  molten 
zinc.  These  fumes  are  to  some  more  insupportable  than  the  acid  fumes. 
Persons  with  bronchial  troubles  are  often  obliged  to  discontinue  the 
work.  In  an  investigation  of  three  galvanizing  establishments  in  Bos- 
ton, the  Massachusetts  Board  of  Health  found  that  in  two  the  ventila- 
tion was  efficient  and  the  fumes  were  rapidly  carried  oft.  "The  work- 

1  Report  of  the  State  Board  of  Health   of    Massachusetts    upon   the    sanitary 
condition  of  factories,  workshops,  etc.,  Boston,  1907,  p.  114. 
2Lehmann :    Archiv.    fuer    Hygiene,  v.  1. 
3Cited  bv  Harrington. 


42 

men  in  all  three,  about  60  in  all,  appeared  to  be  in  good  health,  and 
asserted  that  beyond  sneezing  and  coughing  at  times  they  suffered  no 
inconvenience  or  discomfort/' 

SULPHURIC  AND  NITRIC  ACID. 

The  fumes  of  sulphuric  and  nitric  acids  probably  produce  similar 
effects.  Eulenberg1  believes,  however,  that  the  fumes  of  sulphuric  acid 
produce  no  special  bad  effects,  because  they  sink  very  readily  and  have 
a  great  affinity  for  the  water  in  the  air,  so  that  they  reach  the  system  in 
a  highly  diluted  form.  He  also  points  out  that  the  nitrous  fumes 
generated  by  contact  of  nitric  acid  with  metals  are  more  injurious,  in 
that  they  produce  a  special  predisposition  to  bronchitis,  while  pneumonia 
and  diseases  of  the  eye  have  also  been  attributed  to  these  gases. 

The  workmen  should  be  instructed  to  avoid  the  fumes  as  much  as 
possible  and  to  anoint  the  lips  and  nose  within  and  without  several 
times  a  day.  Protection  should  be  afforded  by  ample  ventilation,  and 
all  processes  involving  the  evolution  of  irritating  or  poisonous  fumes 
should  be  carried  on  in  the  open  air  or  in  open  sheds. 

According  to  the  Massachusetts  Board  of  Health2  the  corrosive  acids 
are  made  in  such  a  way  that  practically  no  fumes  whatever  escape,  the 
work  being  inclosed  from  beginning  to  end.  In  one  of  the  largest  chem- 
ical factories  in  Massachusetts,  where  300  men  are  employed,  it  is  said 
that  the  workmen  are  exposed  very  little  to  poisonous  or  irritating 
fumes  and  dust  or  contact  with  poisonous  or  irritating  substances.  At 
certain  points  in  the  building  acid  fumes  in  considerable  strength  are 
constantly  present,  but  at  these  points  there  is  good  overhead  ventila- 
tion, and  the  workmen  are  rarely  obliged  to  approach  very  near. 

Among  the  products  of  the  above-mentioned  factories  may  be  men- 
tioned hydrochloric,  sulphuric  acid,  nitric  acid,  acetic  acid,  ammonia, 
sodium  sulphite,  sodium  sulphate,  alum,  potassium  cyanide,  ferrous 
sulphate,  and  other  iron  and  sodium  salts ;  also  various  salts  of  tin, 
arsenic,  antimony,  zinc,  copper,  etc. 

AMMONIA. 

Ammonia  rarely  causes  any  serious  disturbance,  except  a  temporary 
irritation  of  the  respiratory  tract,  unless  present  in  very  large  volumes. 
The  amount  which  may  be  present,  according  to  Lehmann,  should  not 

'Eulenberg,  Gewerbehygiene,  p.   143. 

2Report  of  the  State  Board  of  Health  of  Massachusetts  upon  sanitary  condi- 
tions of  factories,  workshops,  etc.,  1907,  p.  103. 


43 

exceed  0.5  per  i.ooo.  A  large  volume  has  been  known  to  cause  inflam- 
mation of  the  eyes  and  bronchial  catarrh,  while  still  greater  concentra- 
tions, which  fortunately  are  rare,  may  produce  difficult  breathing  and 
emphysema. 

CHLORINE  GAS 

Chlorine  gas  is  generally  present  in  the  manufacture  of  chlorinated 
lime,  glazed  bricks,  and  in  bleaching  operations,  and  is  very  apt  to 
produce,  when  present  in  the  proportion  of  1-5  parts  in  100,000  of  air, 
a  cachectic  condition,  asthma,  bronchitis,  caries  of  the  teeth,  and  acne 
or  pimples  upon  the  face,  while  in  a  more  concentrated  form — 40-60 
parts  in  100,000 — it  produces  a  violent  cough  and  extreme  difficulty  in 
breathing. 

Hirt  describes  these  attacks  as  follows:  "In  spite  of  the  aid  of  the 
auxiliary  respiratory  muscles  the  entrance  of  the  air  to  the  lungs  is 
insufficient,  and  the  staring  eyes,  the  livid  lips,  and  the  cold,  clammy 
perspiration  plainly  show  the  mortal  agony  of  the  patient.  The  pulse 
is  small  and  temperature  decreased.  These  phenomena  disappear  upon 
removal  to  the  fresh  air,  and  a  few  hours  later  the  workman  is  found 
enveloped  in  chlorine  and  hydrochloric  acid  vapors  in  his  accustomed 
place  in  the  factory.  The  attacks  seem  to  be  but  rarely  fatal,  unless  the 
volume  exceeds  60  parts  per  100,000." 

BLEACHING  ESTABLISHMENTS. 

The  Massachusetts  Board  of  Health,  in  its  summary  of  five  bleach- 
eries,  with  about  1,200  employees,  speaks  approvingly  of  the  general 
arrangements  for  ventilation  and  says :  "The  odors  of  bleaching  pow- 
ders, although  observable  in  each  of  the  rooms  where  that  substance  is 
employed,  were  in  no  case  so  strong  as  to  be  disagreeable  or  to  cause 
discomfort.  In  one  of  the  establishments  the  persons  exposed  to  the 
h'nt  dust  which  escapes  during  unbaling  and  stitching  together  of  the 
cotton  cloth  all  looked  pale  and  sickly." 

IODINE  AND  BROMINE  VAPORS. 

Iodine  and  bromine  vapors  may  produce  toxic  symptoms.  The 
fumes  of  iodine  are  liable  to  cause  catarrhal  conditions  of  the  nose, 
eyes,  and  air  passages,  and  frequent  headaches,  while  chronic  iodine 
poisoning  produces  a  cachectic  condition,  wasting  of  the  testicles,  and 
loss  of  sexual  powder.    Persons  engaged  in  the  manufacture  of  bromine 


44 

are  said  to  suffer  quite  frequently  with  a  form  of  bronchial  asthma, 
dizziness,  and  general  weakness,  while  concentrated  vapors  have  been 
known  to  produce  spasm  of  the  glottis  and  suffocation. 

Bromine  preparations  are  used  to  a  considerable  extent  in  photog- 
raphy. Schuler1  describes  three  cases,  one  of  which  proved  fatal,  in 
men  who  prepared  "brommetyl"  from  wood  alcohol  and  sulphuric  acid. 
In  all  of  these  three  cases  there  were  pronounced  symptoms  of  nausea, 
spasms,  and  trembling  of  the  extremities  and  diminished  bodily  tem- 
perature. 

TURPENTINE. 

Turpentine  vapors  in  excess  may  produce  gastric  and  pulmonary 
catarrh,  slow  and  painful  micturition  and  bloody  urine,  headache,  roar- 
ing in  the  ears,  and  other  nervous  symptoms.  Schuler  observed  among 
the  workers  in  calico  printing  marked  emaciation,  loss  of  appetite, 
rapid  pulse,  and  more  or  less  headache,  which  he  attributed  to  the  tur- 
pentine vapors.  In  small  doses  no  unpleasant  symptons  are  observed. 
The  odor  of  violets  in  the  urine  is  one  of  its  remarkable  effects.  The 
use  of  impure  turpentine  for  cleaning  purposes  has  been  known  to  pro- 
duce obstinate  eczema  of  the  hand. 

i 

PETROLEUM. 

Concentrated  vapors  of  coal  oil  are  said  to  produce  loss  of  sensation, 
and  the  workmen  in  refineries  occasionally  show  symptoms  like  those 
observed  in  drunken  persons,  fall  into  a  profound  sleep,  or  suffer  from 
loss  of  memory,  dizziness,  headache,  and  chronic  bronchial  catarrhs. 
Pustular,  furuncular,  and  eczematous  affections  of  the  hands  are  also 
quite  common  in  persons  handling  this  and  paraffin  oil.  The  latter  is 
also  true  of  persons  handling  creosote  and  tar,  unless  protected  by  im- 
permeable gloves.  The  dangers  from  explosions  in  the  petroleum 
industry  must  also  be  guarded  against. 

BENZINE  VAPORS. 

Dr.  Neisser,  in  1907,  reports  an  instance  where  three  laborers  in  a 
carpet-cleaning  establishment  in  which  large  quantities  of  benzine  had 
been  used  were  found  unconscious  upon  the  floor  and  had  to  be  restored 
by  oxygen  inhalation.  The  toxic  symptoms  are  similar  to  those  pro- 
duced by  concentrated  petroleum  vapors,  and  the  danger  from  explo- 
sions and  fire  are  of  course  even  greater. 

'Deutsche  Viertelj.  f.  ceflF.  Gesundheitpflege,  Bd.  31,  p.  696. 


45 

CARBON  MONOXIDE. 

Carbon  monoxide,  or  coal  gas,  when  present  in  sufficient  amount 
paralyzes,  so  to  speak,  the  red  corpuscles  by  depriving  them  of  their 
oxygen  and  combining  with  the  hrcmoglobin,  which  results  in  deficiency 
of  oxygen  in  the  blood  and  serious  toxic  symptoms,  which  may  end  in 
death  by  producing  a  rapid  parenchymatous  degeneration  of  the  liver, 
spleen,  and  heart.  This  gas  is  often  present  in  gas  and  smelting  works 
and  around  coke  or  charcoal  furnaces,  and  J4  Per  cent  by  volume  in  the 
air  will  produce  toxic  symptoms,  and  more  than  i  per  cent  is  rapidly 
fatal  to  animal  life.  The  workmen  sometimes,  though  not  as  often  as 
is  supposed,  suffer  from  the  chronic  form  of  poisoning,  such  as  head- 
ache, dizziness,  slow  pulse,  anasmia,  general  debility,  and  diseases  of  the 
respiratory  and  digestive  organs.  The  acute  symptoms  of  coal-gas 
poisoning  are  increased  respiration  and  pulse,  violent  headache,  dizzi- 
ness, and  roaring  in  the  ears.  These  are  soon  followed  by  symptoms  of 
depression,  nausea  and  vomiting,  numbness,  drowsiness,  muscular  relax- 
ation, paralysis,  sighing  respiration,  slowness  of  the  pulse  and  feeble 
heart  action,  dilatation  of  the  pupils,  diminished  bodily  temperature, 
and,  if  continued,  convulsions,  stertorous  breathing,  and  death  by  suffo- 
cation. If  death  does  not  occur  the  patient  is  apt  to  suffer  for  some 
time  from  headache,  physical  and  mental  depression,  paralysis  of  speech 
and  of  the  sphincters,  convulsive  twitching,  and  general  muscular  weak- 
ness, while  pleurisy  and  pneumonia  are  also  frequent. 

CARBONIC-ACID  GAS. 

The  chronic  effect  of  carbonic-acid  gas  has  already  been  alluded  to. 
Well  sinkers  and  miners  are  occasionally  suffocated  owing  to  the  pres- 
ence of  a  large  volume  of  this  gas  evolved  from  the  soil  and  which  has 
collected  in  deep  shafts.  It  is  one  of  the  constituents  of  the  "choke 
damp"  in  the  mines  and  also  present  in  cellars.  It  is  also  a  product  of 
fermentative  processes,  and  the  anaemic  and  debilitated  conditions  of 
miners,  vintners,  distillers,  brewers,  and  yeast  makers  is  believed  to  be 
partly  due  to  an  excess  of  carbonic  acid,  which  diminishes  the  amount  of 
oxygen  in  the  air.  The  acute  symptoms  are  loss  of  consciousness  and 
locomotion,  generally  preceded  by  difficulty  in  breathing,  headache, 
depression,  drowsiness  or  mental  excitement,  sometimes  convulsions. 
Prompt  removal  of  the  patient  into  fresh  air  will  lead  to  rapid  recovery. 

CARBON  DISULPHIDE. 

Carbon  disulphide  is  used  in  certain  processes  in  the  manufacture 
of  vulcanized  india  rubber,  and  also  in  the  extraction  of  fats,  and  may 


46 

produce  in  those  constantly  exposed  to  it  headache,  dizziness,  impaired 
vision,  pains  in  the  limbs,  formication,  sleeplessness,  nervous  depression, 
loss  of  appetite,  etc.  Sometimes,  according  to  Delpech  and  Hirt,  there 
i?  cough,  febrile  attacks,  deafness,  difficult  breathing,  loss  of  memory, 
paralysis  of  the  legs  and  lower  part  of  the  body,  loss  of  sexual  power, 
which  has  been  preceded  by  increased  sexual  appetite  and  mental 
exaltation. 

NAPHTHA. 

Naphtha  is  used  in  the  same  industries,  and  it  is  not  improbable  that 
the  symptoms  are  produced  by  the  combined  influence  of  the  two  fumes. 
At  all  events,  there  are  a  number  of  authenticated  cases  of  acute  naphtha 
poisoning  characterized  by  dispnoea,  dizziness,  and  mental  confusion, 
with  vomiting,  palpitation  of  the  heart,  and  hemorrhages  in  the  fatal 
cases.  Necropsies  reveal  evidence  of  fatty  degeneration  of  the  heart, 
liver,  kidneys,  and  other  parts.  The  cleaners  of  woolen  goods,  etc.,  with 
naphtha  not  infrequently  suffer  from  dizziness,  nausea,  vomiting,  head- 
ache, sleeplessness,  hysteria,  and  symptoms  resembling  alcoholic  intoxi- 
cation.     (See  also  Dyeing  and  Cleansing.) 

NITROBENZOL. 

Nitrobenzol,  which  is  used  in  making  aniline  and  in  the  manufacture 
of  roburite  and  other  explosives,  produces  headache,  dyspnoea,  drowsi- 
ness, dizziness,  nausea  and  vomiting,  great  depression,  stupor,  and  often 
terminates  fatally. 

The  majority  of  workers  in  di-nitro-compounds  in  Great  Britain1 
are  anaemic  and  suffer  from  difficulty  in  breathing  and  general  weak- 
ness. They  are  subject  to  a  biweekly  medical  inspection  and  are 
enjoined  (i)  not  to  touch  these  compounds  with  bare  hands;  (2)  to 
keep  the  feet  in  good  condition,  (a)  by  bathing,  (b)  by  shoes  in  good 
repair;  (3)  avoidance  of  alcoholic  beverages,  and  (4)  by  thorough 
washing  of  the  hands  before  eating  and  change  of  clothing  upon  quit- 
ting the  work. 

DYEING  AND  CLEANSING. 

Among  the  chemical  substances  employed  are  naphtha,  gasoline, 
wood  alcohol,  ammonia,  various  acids,  bleaching  agents,  iron,  copper, 
and  other  salts,  aniline  dyes  and  other  dyestuffs. 

The  Massachusetts  Board  of  Health  reported  of  one  large  establish- 
ment investigated : 

1  Cited  by  Neisser,  1907,  p.  79. 


47 

"In  the  naphtha-cleansing  department,  in  spite  of  mechanical  ven- 
tilation, there  is  a  strong  odor  of  naphtha,  and  all  of  the  men  here 
employed  are  pale  and  some  of  them  very  markedly  sick  looking.'  In 
the  room  in  which  the  naphtha-cleansed  goods  arc  dried,  at  a  tempera- 
ture of  about  120°  F.,  the  naphtha  fumes  are  very  strong.  Although 
the  men  who  bring  in  the  goods  remain  but  a  few  minutes,  some  have 
occasionally  been  temporarily  overcome  by  the  fumes  and  have  shown 
the  characteristic  excitement  and  hysterical  symptoms  of  naphtha  intox- 
ication. At  the  time  of  visit,  the  man  who  does  most  of  this  work  had 
been  engaged  thereat  for  three  months  and  had  experienced  no  ill 
effects." 

RUBBER  INDUSTRY. 

The  Massachusetts  Board  of  Health  investigated  14  rubber  fac- 
tories with  about  9,000  employees.2  It  appears  that  naphtha  has  to  a 
great  extent  replaced  the  more  dangerous  carbon  disulphide  as  a  vulcan- 
ising agent,  and  in  11  of  the  13  factories  visited  the  odor  of  naphtha 
was  noted  as  only  slight.  In  two  factories  it  was  stated  that  "a  few 
girls,  new  to  the  work,  show  the  effects  of  naphtha  and  suffer  from 
headache  and  sometimes  nausea  and  vomiting,  but  that  such  girls  do 
not  long  continue  at  the  work.  Naphtha  fumes  sometimes  bring  about 
a  condition  which  much  resembles  alcoholic  intoxication,  and  which 
occurs  most  often  in  the  room  where  rubber  is  spread  upon  cloth.  New 
men  are  especially  susceptible,  but  even  old  hands  have  sometimes  to. 
leave  their  work  at  times  for  a  breath  of  fresh  air.  *  *  *  In  six 
of  the  factories  where  litharge  is  handled,  no  history  could  be  obtained 
of  any  case  of  lead  poisoning.  In  two  it  was  stated  that  cases  occur, 
but  not  often.  All  of  the  establishments,  with  one  exception,  were 
found  to  be  well  lighted  and  adequately  ventilated." 

PATENT-LEATHER  INDUSTRY. 

The  fumes  of  naptha,  amyl  acetate,  and  wood  alcohol  which  are 
given  off  in  the  manufacture  of  patent  leather  are  dangerous.  While 
no  exact  data  are  available,  it  is  admitted  by  those  in  authority  that 
many  employees  can  not  do  the  work  on  account  of  inability  to  with- 
stand their  influences. 

ANILINE  VAPOR. 

Aniline  vapor  is  dangerous  to  health  when  present  in  the  air  to  the 
extent  of  0.1  per  cent.    Hirt  describes  an  acute  form  of  poisoning  from 

'Report  of  the  State  Board  of  Health  of  Massachusetts.  1007,  p.  109. 
2  Report  of  the  State  Board  of  Health  of  Massachusetts,  1907,  p.  113. 


48 

aniline  vapor,  which  usually  results  fatally.  "The  workman  falls  sud- 
denly to  the  ground,  the  skin  is  cold  and  pale,  the  face  is  cyanotic 
(bluish  discoloration  of  the  skin),  the  breath  has  the  odor  of  aniline, 
the  respiration  is  slowed,  and  the  pulse  increased.  The  sensation 
diminishes  from  the  beginning  of  the  attack,  gradually  entirely  disap- 
pears, and  death  follows  in  a  state  of  profound  stupor." 

The  milder  forms  are  characterized  by  laryngeal  irritation,  loss  of 
appetite,  headache,  giddiness,  and  weakness,  with  a  rapid,  small,  and 
irregular  pulse,  and  diminished  sensibility  of  the  skin.  In  some 
instances  short  convulsions  have  occurred.  Prompt  fresh-air  treatment 
is  absolutely  essential. 

The  chronic  form  of  aniline  poisoning  may  affect  the  central  nerv- 
ous system,  and  cause  lassitude,  headache,  roaring  in  the  ears,  motor  or 
sensory  disturbance,  or  it  may  produce  digestive  derangements  such 
as  eructations,  nausea,  and  vomiting,  or  it  may  affect  the  skin  by  caus- 
ing eczematous  or  pustular  eruptions  and  even  well-defined  ulcers. 
Doctor  Neisser  (1907)  reports  a  number  of  such  cases  either  in  aniline 
factories  or  in  dyeing  works. 

The  medical  inspector  of  Clayton,  England,  has  presented  a  very 
interesting  report1  on  the  effects  of  aniline  oil  in  black  aniline  dyeing 
works,  and  also  the  effects  upon  the  skin  of  chromic  acid  and  the 
bichromates  of  potassium  and  sodium  in  these  establishments.  He 
visited  20  establishments  and  examined  200  employees,  many  of  whom 
suffered  from  anaemia,  headache,  digestive  derangements,  heartburn, 
dizziness,  palpitation  of  the  heart,  loss  of  will  power,  and  excessive 
mucous  secretions,  all  of  which  were  attributed  to  the  toxic  effects  of 
aniline.  He  recommends  as  safeguards:  1,  Mechanical,  suctional 
ventilation  (a)  at  the  machines  where  the  cloth  is  being  dyed,  (b)  at 
the  machines  where  the  cloth  passes  through  the  bichromate  solution, 
and  (c)  at  points  where  there  is  danger  from  the  chromate  dust;  2, 
protective  clothing,  and  frequent  washing  of  the  working  suits,  lockers, 
and  dressing  rooms  for  street  clothing;  3,  special  lunch  rooms;  4, 
suitable  wash  rooms.2 

WOOD  ALCOHOL. 

Vapors  from  varnishes  have  been  known  to  produce  blindness,  due 
to  inflammation  of  the  nerves  behind  the  eyeball,  and  partial  atrophy 
of  the  optic  nerve.  Similar  effects  follow  the  internal  use  of  wood 
alcohol,  and  even  fatal  cases  have  been  reported  in  consequence  of 

'Neisser,  p.  75,  1907. 
2Cited  by  Neisser,  p.  74. 


49 

its  substitution  for  the  pure  alcohols.  Uoctoi  \'ei  er,  in  igop,  reports 
a  large  number  of  eczematous  affe<  lion  of  the  hand  ,  arms,  and  face  in 
furniture  polishers  ("polisher's  itch"),  which  may  possibly  be  can  ed 
by  some  of  the  impure  alcohols. 

CHROME  PIGMENTS. 

In  the  manufacturing  and  handling  of  chrome  pigments,  as  in  tan- 
neries and  various  leather  industries,  a  dust  or  vapor  is  involved  which 
causes  inflammation  of  the  eyes  and  even  ulceration  of  the  nasal  septum 
and  elsewhere. 

QUININE. 

Quite  a  large  percentage  of  the  persons  employed  in  the  manufac- 
ture of  quinine  suffer  from  a  dry  form  of  eczema  of  the  hands  and  face, 
which  is  claimed  to  be  directly  due  to  emanations  from  the  boiling 
cclution,  as  the  disease  disappears  if  the  work  is  given  up. 

In  the  so-called  "polisher's  itch"  and  in  the  effects  produced  by 
chrome  and  quinine  the  use  of  rubber  gloves  and  anointing  the  skin 
with  some  clean  oil  or  grease  have  been  found  most  useful. 

MANGANESE. 

According  to  Doctor  Neisser  (1907)  a  small  percentage  of  the 
workers  in  manganese  mills  and  dry  pigments  are  affected  with  head- 
ache, dizziness,  loss  of  appetite,  constipation,  loosening  of  the  teeth, 
muscular  pains,  and  general  debility. 

BRASS  FOUNDERS. 

The  workers  in  brass  foundries  inhale  a  metallic  dust  or  vapor  of 
zinc  or  copper,  or  perhaps  of  both,  which  has  given  rise  to  a  train  of 
symptoms  described  as  "brass  founders'  ague."  The  illness  attacks 
about  75  per  cent  of  those  who  are  new  to  the  work,  or  who  resume 
work  after  an  absence  of  a  month  or  even  a  fortnight.  There  are  more 
or  less  severe  pains  in  the  back,  and  general  lassitude,  which  compels 
the  patient  to  seek  his  bed.  Usually  after  he  has  taken  to  his  bed  chilli- 
ness comes  on,  increasing  to  a  decided  rigor  and  lasting  15  minutes  or 
longer.  In  the  course  of  an  hour  or  less  the  pulse  beats  from  100  to  120 
per  minute,  accompanied  by  a  tormenting  cough,  corresponding  head- 
ache, and  soreness  in  the  chest.  After  the  lapse  of  a  few  hours  free 
perspiration  indicates  the  disappearance  of  the  fever  and  the  patient 


50 

falls  into  a  deep  sleep,  from  which  he  awakens  with  perhaps  only  a 
slight  headache  and  lassitude.  In  England  the  men  who  suffer  this  way 
drink  freely  of  milk  and  promote  vomiting — perhaps  the  best  treatment 
for  copper  or  zinc  poisoning.  A  chronic  form  of  zinc  or  copper  pois- 
oning, characterized  by  oversensibility,  formication  and  burning  of  the 
skin  of  the  lower  extremities,  tactile  and  motor  disturbance,  anaemia, 
cough,  headache,  neuralgia,  digestive  disturbance,  and  progressive  ema- 
ciation, is  said  to  occur  among  men  who  have  worked  for  a  number  of 
years  in  brass  foundries.  At  present  it  is  not  possible  to  say  whether 
the  symptoms  of  brass  founders'  ague  are  due  to  the  copper,  zinc,  or 
arsenic,  or  a  combination  of  all  three.  Some  authors  believe  it  to  be 
a  specific  infection. 

ARSENICAL  FUMES. 

Arsenical  fumes  are  frequently  given  off  in  smelting  processes, 
especially  copper  works,  and,  like  those  of  arseniuretted  hydrogen,  may 
give  rise  to  jaundice,  headache,  nausea,  stiffness  of  the  joints,  general 
anaemia,  discomfort,  and  malnutrition.  When  inhaled  in  concentrated 
doses  the  fumes  produce  symptoms  of  nausea,  vomiting,  languor, 
drowsiness,  rapid  pulse,  frequent  micturition,  and  bloody  urine.  In 
serious  cases  the  pulse  becomes  small  and  thready,  skin  cold  and 
clammy,  and  death  ensues  with  evident  signs  of  cardiac  paralysis. 

MERCURY. 

The  most  important  of  the  poisonous  vapors  in  connection  with 
dangerous  trades  are  mercury  and  phosphorus.  Workers  in  mercury 
suffer  greatly  from  the  effects  of  mercurial  poisoning,  such  as  saliva- 
tion, tremor,  and  nervous  symptoms,  and  many  fall  victims  to  pulmo- 
nary tuberculosis.  Miscarriages  among  the  female  employees  are  very 
common.  These  effects,  according  to  Renk,1  are  due  to  the  inhalation 
of  mercurial  vapors  in  badly  ventilated  workshops,  while  Wollner 
attributes  them  to  the  inhalation  and  swallowing  of  fine  mercurial  dust. 
Of  7,221  mirror  makers  at  Furth  during  the  year  1883  not  less  than 
2,457,  or  34  per  cent,  were  taken  sick,  and  of  these  60  per  cent  suffered 
from  mercurial  poisoning.  This  danger  has  been  practically  eliminated 
in  the  mirror  industry,  but  it  is  still  pronounced  in  the  manufacture  of 
felt,  thermometers,  barometers,  dry  electric  batteries,  and  bronzing.  In 
Europe  persistent  efforts  are  being  made  to  reduce  the  danger  in  these 
industries  to  a  minimum,  and  some  of  the  felt  establishments  no  longer 

jRenk  Arbeiten  aus  dem  k.  k.     Gesundheitsamte,  V,  p.  113. 


5' 

use  the  preliminary  treatment  of  the  hair  with  mercuric  nitrate.  The 
64  cases  reported  in  Great  Britain  in  1906  and  cited  by  '•<  i    CT  occurred 

as  follows:  Manufacturers  of  electric  meters,  17;  thermometers,  etc., 
16;  felt  and  fur  industry,  13;  gilding,  7;  chemical  works,  7;  powder 
works,  3;  lithography,  1. 

As  preventive  measures  may  be  mentioned  the  following:  1,  (  hange 
of  clothing  before  and  after  work;  2,  weekly  washing  of  the  working 
clothes ;  3,  systematic  and  frequent  washing  of  the  hands,  weekly  sul- 
phur baths  or  frequent  general  baths,  and  gargling  at  the  close  of  work 
w'th  a  solution  of  permanganate  of  potassium ;  4,  limit  of  work  to  eight 
hours  per  day  and  thorough  ventilation  of  the  rooms — open  floors  and 
windows ;  5,  frequent  cleaning  of  floors  with  damp  sawdust  and  sprink- 
ling with  a  solution  of  ammonia. 

PHOSPHORUS. 

In  the  manufacture  of  phosphorus  matches  white  and  red  phos- 
phorus have  been  used.  The  danger  consists  in  the  inhalation  of  the 
fumes  when  the  white  substance  is  used,  while  the  red  or  amorphous 
phosphorus  is  neither  poisonous  nor  easily  inflammable.  The  gas  smells 
like  garlic.  The  toxic  symptoms  in  the  acute  form  are  difficult  breath- 
ing and  a  feeling  of  intense  anxiety.  The  fumes  are  only  given  off 
when  the  air  contains  moisture.  The  milder  effects  of  phosphorus  con- 
sist of  gastric  and  bronchial  catarrhs,  anaemia,  and  malnutrition,  fol- 
lowed occasionally  by  a  painful  inflammation  of  the  bones  of  the  lower 
or  upper  jaws,  due  to  the  local  action  of  the  phosphorus,  and  often 
beginning  in  carious  teeth  or  in  the  alveolar  process  of  missing  teeth. 
The  disease  may  develop  during  the  first  months,  but  generally  not 
until  four  or  five  years  after  the  beginning  of  the  employment,  and 
carious  teeth,  with  toothache,  are  among  the  first  symptoms,  followed 
by  swelling  of  the  glands  of  the  neck,  alveolar  abscesses,  and  necrosis 
of  the  jaws.  Formerly  from  11  to  12  per  cent,  of  the  employees 
suffered.  Since  the  use  of  red  or  amorphous  phosphorus  the  danger 
has  been  greatly  reduced.  Only  about  2  per  cent  of  the  operatives  are 
now  attacked. 

Doctor  Neisser  reports  that  during  the  year  1906  several  cases  of 
phosphorus  necrosis  occurred  in  German  match  factories,  in  which  the 
use  of  white  phosphorus  was  promptly  stopped. 

The  medical  inspectors  of  Great  Britain,  from  October  1,  1900,  to 
October  1,  1905,  reported  only  11  cases  of  phosphorus  necrosis,  the 
reduction  being  attributed  to  improved  factory  sanitation. 

The  medical  inspector  of  Belgium  (quoted  by  Doctor  Neisser,  page 


52 

7 1)  reports  that  during  the  last  six  years  only  one  case  of  necrosis 
occurred,  and  the  morbidity  of  the  employees  in  match  factories  has 
also  decreased  coincident  with  factory  sanitation,  as  shown  by  the 
following  figures: 


Number  of  employees 

Number   of   employees   examined 

Number  of  apparently  healthy  employees. 

Number  of  sick  employees 

Number  of  deaths 


1,114 

7,051 

757 

387 

401 


1,182 

8,511 

1,055 

127 

132 


1,226 
9,003 
1,061 
165 
(a) 


aDoctor  Neisser  states  that  the  records  do  not  disclose  the  fact  whether  or  not  there  were 
any  deaths  during  1905. 

The  use  of  respirators,  thorough  ventilation,  the  disengagement  of 
turpentine  vapors  to  promote  rapid  drying  and  strict  cleanliness,  such 
as  ablution  of  the  hands,  change  of  clothing,  and  gargling  with  weak 
alkaline  solutions  before  eating  and  drinking  are  still  in  order  as  pre- 
ventive measures. 

BEET-SUGAR  INDUSTRY. 

In  the  beet-sugar  industry,  especially  when  the  diffusion  method  is 
employed,  an  explosive  mixture  containing  probably  carbureted  hydro- 
gen has  proved  a  source  of  danger  to  the  operatives,  and  the  waste 
waters  are  believed  to  be  also  a  menace  to  public  health. 

OCCUPATIONS    INVOLVING    EXPOSURE   TO    EXTREMES 

OF  HEAT,  SUDDEN  CHANGES,  AND  ABNORMAL 

ATMOSPHERIC   PRESSURE. 


Exposure  to  extremes  of  heat  and  sudden  changes  is  injurious  and 
predisposes  to  a  number  of  diseases.  Stokers,  cooks,  bakers,  black- 
smiths, firemen,  etc.,  are  very  apt  to  suffer  from  heat  exhaustion  and 
thermic  fever  (sunstroke).  The  duration  of  life  is  low,  and  rheuma- 
tism, eczema,  catarrhal  affections,  pneumonia,  and  diseases  of  the  heart 
are  quite  common.  Sailors,  farmers,  motormen,  conductors,  teamsters, 
coachmen,  and  many  others  are  often  exposed  to  sudden  changes  in  the 
weather,  and  suffer  quite  frequently  from  rheumatism,  catarrhal 
affections,  pneumonia,  and  Bright's  disease. 

The  effects  of  both  heat  and  cold  are  intensified  by  extreme  humidity 
in  the  atmosphere,  and  special  precautions  are  necessary  upon  hot  and 
sultry  days  and  in  cold,  raw  weather.  Occupations  involving  expos- 
ure to  dampness,  especially  when  performed  indoors,  are  injurious, 


53 

because  a  cold,  damp  air  abstracts  an   undue  amount   of  animal  heat 
from  the  body,  lowers  the  power  of  resistance,  and  predii  po  •     to 

catarrhal  and  rheumatic  diseases,     ft  is  a  well-known  fact  that  damp 
houses  favor  the  development  of  consumption. 

CAISSON  DISEASE. 

The  effects  of  compressed  air  on  workmen  in  tunnels,  caissons,  deep 
mines,  and  diving  bells  were  formerly  attributed  solely  to  increased 
atmospheric  pressure,  in  consequence  of  which  it  was  believed  that 
the  blood  received  not  only  an  excess  of  oxygen,  but  by  reason  of  the 
abnormal  pressure  was  driven  from  the  surface  to  the  internal  organs, 
causing  congestion,  especially  of  the  central  nervous  system.  It  is 
now  held  that,  while  increased  atmospheric  pressure  is  capable  of  pro- 
ducing characteristic  effects  upon  the  circulation,  such  as  pallor  of  the 
skin,  ringing  in  the  ears,  bulging  and  possibly  rupture  of  the  ear 
drums,  the  most  serious  symptoms  are  produced  when  the  pressure  is 
too  rapidly  increased  or  removed  by  a  faulty  method  of  "locking  in" 
and  "locking  out." 

A  commission  of  Belgian  medical  experts  examined  166  caisson 
workers  before  and  after  their  work,  the  shift  lasting  from  8  to  12 
hours,  and  found  1,  that  the  blood-making  function,  as  shown  by  the 
haemoglobin  contents,  was  actually  increased  during  their  work;  2, 
that  so  long  as  the  pressure  does  not  increase  beyond  3  atmospheres 
(45  pounds)  the  men  feel  perfectly  well  and  perform  their  labor  with 
more  ease  and  even  less  fatigue  than  under  normal  atmospheric  pres- 
sure; 3,  that  men  of  temperate  habits,  with  a  sound  heart,  lungs,  and 
nervous  system,  suffer  no  injurious  effects,  and  none  others  should  be 
employed;  4,  the  real  injury  is  done  by  a  sudden  removal  of  atmos- 
pheric pressure  in  a  hasty  "locking-out"  process,  for  which  the  work- 
men are  often  to  blame. 

The  general  rule  in  "locking  out'"  should  be  to  allow  at  least  one 
minute  for  each  6  pounds  of  pressure  within  the  chamber. 

The  symptoms  of  so-called  caisson  disease  are  rarely  observed  until 
the  pressure  equals  20  pounds,  and  usually  do  not  appear  for  some 
minutes  or  hours  after  emerging.  In  addition  to  the  symptoms  already 
mentioned,  there  may  be  hemorrhage  from  the  nose,  mouth,  and  ears ; 
headache,  dizziness,  rapid  pulse,  sweating,  severe  pain  in  the  back, 
extremities,  or  region  of  the  stomach,  and  vomiting.  Partial  deafness 
and  symptoms  of  motor  paralysis,  more  or  less  general,  but  most  fre- 
quently confined  to  the  lower  extremities,  are  frequently  observed. 
Cases  with  pronounced  head  and  spinal  symptoms  usually  prove  fatal. 


54 

The  milder  cases,  as  a  rule,  recover  sooner  or  later,  although  the  mus- 
cular pains  and  paralytic  symptoms  may  persist  for  weeks,  or  even 

longer. 

OCCUPATIONS   INVOLVING   CONSTRAINED   ATTITUDES. 

The  effects  of  a  constrained  position,  combined  with  a  sedentary 
life,  are  very  injurious.  This  is  especially  seen  in  weavers,  shoe- 
makers, engravers,  watchmakers,  tailors,  lithographers,  etc.,  all  of 
whom  are  obliged  to  assume  a  more  or  less  constrained  attitude,  which 
interferes  with  a  proper  distribution  of  the  blood  supply  and  is  liable 
to  be  followed  by  internal  congestions.  But  perhaps  the  greatest  harm 
results  from  deficient  movement  of  the  chest  and  consequent  interfer- 
ence with  normal  respiration.  As  a  matter  of  fact,  many  of  these 
artisans  suffer  from  phthisis,  constipation,  dyspepsia,  and  hemorrhoids, 
and  all  have  a  low  average  duration  of  life. 

Among  the  apprentices  of  bakers,  deformities  such  as  "flat  foot" 
and  "knock-knee"  and  varicose  veins  of  the  lower  extremity  are  fre- 
quently seen,  as  the  result  of  being  on  their  feet  too  long.  Varicose 
veins  and  ulcers  are  quite  common  among  motormen  and  conductors, 
while  bakers,  cabinetmakers,  and  others  are  also  very  liable  to  develop 
abnormal  curvature  of  the  spine. 

OCCUPATIONS  INVOLVING  OVER  EXERCISE  OF  PARTS 

OF   THE    BODY. 

Among  the  diseases  due  to  the  excessive  use  of  certain  muscles  may 
be  mentioned  the  affection  called  "writer's  cramp,"  which  is  a  con- 
vulsive affection  of  the  fingers.  Similar  fatigue  neuroses,  character- 
ized by  localized  paralysis  and  twitching,  are  observed  in  copyists,  type- 
writers, telegraph  operators,  pianists,  violinists,  engravers,  seamstresses, 
cigar  makers,  etc. 

Pulmonary  emphysema  is  quite  common  among  performers  on  wind 
instruments.  Boiler  makers'  deafness  and  mill  operatives'  deafness 
may  also  be  mentioned.  The  former  is  believed  to  be  due  to  their 
constant  exposure  to  an  atmosphere  in  a  state  of  violent  vibration,  while 
the  latter  affection  is  characterized  by  an  inability  to  hear  distinctly 
except  during  a  noise.  Public  speakers  and  singers  are  apt  to  suffer 
from  chronic  affections  of  the  throat  and  paralysis  of  the  vocal  chords, 
and  watchmakers,  engravers,  and  seamstresses,  as  well  as  all  others 
who  use  their  eyes  upon  minute  objects,  are  more  liable  to  suffer  from 
nearsightedness  and  other  visual  defects. 


55 

Tobacco  testers  are  apt  to  suffer  from  nervous  symptoms  and 
ons  visual  defects,  and  tea  f.i  !•  i       oon  berome  the  victims  of  rnu  Ctllaf 
tremblings  and  other  nervous  symptoms,  the  result  of  a  chronic  "theine 
intoxication." 

OCCUPATIONS  INVOLVING  EXPOSURE  TO  MACHINERY, 

ETC. 

Life  insurance  and  accident  policy  statistics  plainly  indicate  the 
danger  of  occupations  which  involve  contact  with  machinery.  Thi- 
may  be  the  result  of  individual  carelessness  or  the  negligence  of  others. 
Not  infrequently  accidents  are  the  result  of  boiler  explosions,  circular 
saws,  belting,  and  flying  fragments,  and  are  due  to  a  lack  of  proper 
safety  devices.  As  might  be  expected,  many  of  the  accidents  befall 
children  and  inexperienced  persons  and  take  place  at  night  or  in  badly 
lighted  establishments.  Roth  calls  attention  to  the  accident  statistics 
of  the  German  Empire  for  1897,1  which  clearly  indicate  that  accidents 
increase  with  mental  and  muscular  fatigue.  Upon  the  assumption 
that  there  is  one  accident  for  every  three  working  hours  during  the 
year,  the  average  number  of  industrial  accidents  in  the 

Forenoon  between : 

6  and  9  o'clock  was 1 .  10 

9  and  12  o'clock  was 2.26 

Afternoon  between: 

12  and  3  o'clock  was 1.02 

3  and  6  o'clock  was 2. 1 1 

Professor  Imbert  at  the  International  Congress  for  Hygiene  and 
Demography  at  Brussels,  1903,  from  an  abundance  of  statistical  mate- 
rial arrived  at  a  similar  conclusion.  According  to  Rubner2  of  100  acci- 
dents, 41  befell  children  under  15  years  of  age,  36.4  befell  persons 
between  15  and  25  years  of  age,  13. 1  befell  persons  between  25  and  40 
years  of  age,  and  9.5  befell  persons  between  40  and  60  years  of  age. 
The  upper  extremities  were  involved  in  87  per  cent,  of  the  cases,  the 
lower  extremities  in  7.5  per  cent,  and  the  head  and  trunk  in  5.5  per 
cent.  During  the  year  1899  there  were  in  English  factories  301  fatal 
and  19,321  nonfatal  accidents,  all  attributable  to  machinery  moved  by 
mechanical  power.3 

Swiss  statistics  show  that  among  1,000  workingmen  accidents  occur 

JErmuedung  durch  Berufsarbeit,  Internat.  Kongress  fuer  Hygiene  und 
Demographie,  Berlin  1907,  Bund  ii.  p.  618. 

2Lehrbuch  der  Hygiene.  6th  Edit.  Leipzig  &  Wien,  1899-1900,  p.  701. 
3Dangerous  Trades,  Oliver,  p.  203. 


56 

as  follows;1  Cotton  spinners,  2.22;  millers,  28.0;  paper  manufacturers, 
31.1;  carpenters,  35.2;  locksmiths,  46.9;  brewers,  66.7;  masons,  80.5; 
blacksmiths,  93.1 ;  metal  workers,  102.1  ;  molders,  132.2. 

Many  of  the  accidents  to  metal  workers,  masons,  miners,  weavers, 
etc.,  befall  the  eye,  and  Magnus  attributes  8.5  per  cent  of  all  cases  of 
blindness  to  accidents. 

Of  48,262  accidents  among  British  miners  from  1884  to  1898,  not 
less  than  2,506,  or  5.19  per  cent,  affected  the  eye.2 

COAL  MINING. 

The  mining  of  coal  is,  even  under  the  best  conditions,  one  of  the 
most  dangerous  industries.  A  report  of  the  United  States  Geological 
Surveys  shows  the  number  of  men  killed  for  each  1,000  employed  in 
the  United  States  and  in  the  four  leading  European  countries,  the 
figures  being  averages  for  five  years. 

NUMBER  OF  MEN  KILLED  FOR  EACH  1,000    MEN     EMPLOYED— AVERAGES    FOR 

FIVE  YEARS. 


Country. 


Number 


France  (1901-1905)    

Belgium    (1902-1906)     

Great  Britain  (1902-1906) .  . 

Prussia    (1900-1904) 

United    States    (1902-1906). 


1.28 
2.06 
3-39 


The  following  table  from  the  same  report  shows  the  number  of 
deaths  from  accident  for  every  million  tons  of  coal  mined : 

NUMBER  OF  MEN  KILLED  IN  COAL  MINES    PER   MILLION   TONS   OF   COAL  PRO- 
DUCED. 


Year. 


United 
States. 


Great 

Britain. 


1902 
1903 
1904 
1905 
1906 


6.79 
5.62 
6.24 
5-97 

5-57 


04.70 
4.41 
4.64 
4-31 


Belgium.       France 


6.29 
6.68 
5-66 
5-64 
4.96 


4.80 
4.20 
4-55 
4.17 


oAverage,  1894  to  1903. 

The  causes  of  the  fatal  and  nonfatal  accidents  in  the  coal  mines  of 
the  United  States  in  1906  were  as  follows: 


Sergey's  Principles  of  Hygiene,  1904,  p.  276. 
201iver,  p.  776. 

3Coal-Mine  Accidents;  Their  Causes  and  Prevention, 
tical  Report.     United  States  Geological  Survey,  1907. 


A  Preliminary  Statis- 


57 


CAUSES  OF  COAL-MINE  ACCIDENTS  IN  THE  UNITED  ST/ 


Accidents  due  to — 


Gas  and   dust   explosions 
Powder    explosions 
Kails  of  roof  and  coal 
Other  causes 


An  exhaustive  analysis  of  mining  accidents  in  the  German  Empire 
will  be  found  in  the  Statistik  der  Knappschafts-Berufsgenossenschaft 
fur  das  Deutsche  Reich,  Berlin,  1897.  The  total  number  of  persons 
insured  for  one  year  during  the  period  covered  (October  I,  1885,  to 
December  31,  1894)  by  the  work  was  3,623,175;  the  total  number  of 
accidents  of  all  kinds  notified  was  278,371,  distributed  as  follows: 


TOTAL  NUMBER  OF  ACCIDENTS  OF  ALL  KINDS  NOTIFIED. 


Class  of  accidents. 

Number. 

1,000 

-'ins 
em- 
ployed. 

7,72i 

1.427 

14.367 

8,164 

246,692 

2.13 

■39 

3-97 

2-25 

8-74 
68.09 

Total    

278,371 

76.83 

The  causes  of  the  fatal  and  serious  accidents  as  calculated  per  1,000 
employees  are  given  as  follows : 

Falls  of  rock,  coal,  falling  bodies,  etc 3.44 

Transport,  haulage,  winding,  loading,  etc 2.26 

Falls  from  ladders,  steps,  or  other  heights 89 

Explosions    , 78 

Machinery  in  motion,  motors,  etc 51 

Molten  metal,  hot  and  corrosive  fluids,  poisonous  gases 12 

Miscellaneous    74 


Total    8.74 

Mr.  Henry  Louis,  in  commenting  upon  these  statistics  in  Oliver's 
"Dangerous  Trades,"  page  516,  says.  "41.6  per  cent,  or  two-fifths,  of  all 
the  accidents  could  have  been  avoided  by  proper  care  and  intelligent 
thought  on  the  part  of  all  concerned,  and,  in  the  second  place,  fully 
one-third  of  the  accidents  can  be  ascribed  to  the  faults  of  the  victims 
themselves." 

According  to  Revue  Scientifique1   during  the  past  50  years  there 

1 1875,  II.  p.  765- 


58 

were  no  less  than  503  mine  explosions  in  Europe,  with  a  loss  of  over 
5,000  lives.  The  number  of  men  killed  in  the  coal  mines  of  the  United 
States  is  appalling,  amounting  to  22,840  during  the  17  years  ending 
with  1906.    In  1906  the  total  killed  was  2,061  and  about  5,000  injured. 

In  the  introduction  to  the  Report  of  the  United  States  Geological 
Survey,  already  cited,  on  "Coal  Mine  Accidents :  Their  Cause  and  Pre- 
vention"1 Mr.  Joseph  A.  Holmes  says:  "The  figures  given  in  this 
report  indicate  that  during  the  year  1906  nearly  7,000  men  were  killed 
or  injured  in  the  coal  mines  of  this  country,  and  that  the  number  of 
these  accidents  caused  directly  or  indirectly  by  mine  explosions  has 
been  steadily  increasing.  *  *  *  The  increase  both  in  the  number 
and  in  the  seriousness  of  mine  explosions  in  the  United  States  during 
the  past  years  may  be  expected  to  continue  unless,  through  investi- 
gations made  in  the  United  States,  such  as  have  proved  effective  in 
other  coal-producing  countries,  information  can  be  obtained  and  pub- 
lished concerning  the  explosives  used,  the  conditions  under  which 
they  may  be  used  safely  in  the  presence  of  coal  dust  or  gas,  and  the 
general  conditions  which  make  for  health  and  safety  in  coal-mining 
operations." 

According  to  English  data,  cited  by  Frederick  L.  Hoffman  (Quar- 
terly Publications  of  the  American  Statistical  Association,  December, 
1902,  page  178),  "for  the  period  1890-1892,  at  ages  45-54,  the  general 
death  rate  of  all  miners  was  19.6  per  1,000,  and  of  quarrymen  25.3  per 
1,000.  For  coal  miners  alone  the  death  rate  at  this  age  period  was 
19.4 ;  for  copper  miners,  24.3 ;  for  tin  miners,  32.2,  and  for  lead  miners, 
23.9  per  1,000 — indications  of  quite  considerable  differences  in  the 
mortality  and  specific  disease  liability  of  men  engaged  in  the  mining 
of  coal  and  the  different  metals." 

While  tuberculosis  is  comparatively  rare  among  coal  miners,  anthra- 
cosis  (a  lung  disease  produced  by  coal  dust — "black  lung"),  miner's 
asthma,  which  is  really  a  chronic  bronchitis  with  emphysema,  and 
simple  chronic  bronchitis  are  common  affections.  These  diseases  are 
largely  influenced  by  defective  ventilation,  for  Greenhow  has  shown 
that  in  the  operatives  of  well-ventilated  mines  there  is  no  excess  of 
pulmonary  diseases.2 

Apart  from  large  quantities  of  dust,  the  air  of  mines  contains  putre- 
factive gases  from  decomposing  excrementitious  matter,  products  of 
combustion,  especially  carbonic-acid  gas,  which  is  also  one  of  the  con- 
stituents of  the  "choke  damp."    In  addition  to  all  this,  the  "fire  damp" 

jPage  4. 

2Greenhow,  third  and  fourth  report  of  the  medical  officer  of  the  Privy  Coun- 
cil, 1860-1861. 


59 

(an  explosive  mixture  of  carbureted  hydrogen  with  atmospheric  air  in 
the  proportion  of  6-10  volumes  per  cent)  and  the  excessive  tempera- 
ture, real  hard  work,  constrained  attitude,  and  careless  use  of  cxplo'.ivc 
add  very  greatly  to  the  danger  of  miners. 

Much  can  be  done  to  prevent  accidents  by  the  introduction  of  safe 
hoisting  cages,  proper  engineering,  the  use  of  suitable  explosives,  and 
adequate  inspection  laws,  while  Davy's  safety  lamps,  incandescent 
electric  lights,  and  copious  ventilation  will  serve  to  prevent  explosions 
of  fire  damp  and  aid  in  the  purification  of  the  air. 

RAILWAY  SERVICE. 

Employees  of  the  railway  service,  owing  to  a  life  full  of  hardships, 
exposures,  and  responsibilities,  together  with  irregular  habits,  suffer 
not  only  from  accidents,  but  also  experience  more  or  less  sickness, 
especially  from  rheumatic  affections,  diseases  of  the  digestive  and 
respiratory  organs,  and  injuries  and  disturbances  of  the  nervous  sys- 
tem. Forty-eight  per  cent  of  the  German  railway  employees  in  1885 
were  taken  sick,  as  follows:  Rheumatism,  8.18  per  cent;  digestive 
diseases,  11.12  per  cent;  respiratory  diseases,  8.53  per  cent;  nervous 
diseases,  2.73  per  cent.  The  train  hands  suffered  most,  and  the  office 
employees,  of  course,  the  least.  The  percentage  of  the  different  classes 
of  sick  employees  was  as  follows: 

PER   CENT  OF  GERMAN   RAILWAY  EMPLOYEES    TAKEN    SICK,    1885    AND    :886, 

BY  OCCUPATIONS. 


Occupation. 


1885. 


1886. 


Train  arrangers   

Train  hands,  engineers,  conductors,  brakemen,  etc. 

Gate  keepers,  etc 

Switch  tenders    

Track   watchmen    

Station  employees   

Office  employees   


83 

89 

6S 

66 

54 

56 

50 

53 

40 

42 

33 

36 

23 

26 

Hedinger1  has  called  attention  to  the  fact  that  only  8  per  cent  of 
the  German  locomotive  engineers  have  normal  hearing,  while  6y  per 
cent  of  the  engineers  and  30  per  cent  of  the  firemen  have  very  defec- 
tive hearing;  14.5  per  cent  of  the  track-walkers  also  had  defective 
hearing.  The  percentage  in  all  increased  with  the  length  of  the  service. 
The  most  common  affections  were  catarrh  of  the  internal  and  middle 
ear,  which  were  probably  due  to  abrupt  changes  in  temperature. 

JZeitchft,  des  Vereins  d.  Eisenbahnverwaltungen,  27,  p.  25. 


6o 


RAILWAY  ACCIDENTS. 

The  reports1,  of  the  Interstate  Commerce  Commission  indicate  a 
constant  increase  in  the  number  of  injuries  from  railway  accidents. 
The  number  of  employees  killed  by  accidents  arising  from  the  move- 
ment of  trains,  locomotives,  or  cars,  as  distinct  from  those  of  other 
causes,  in  1906,  was  3,709,  of  whom  2,310  were  trainmen,  and  42,962 
injured,  of  whom  34,989  were  trainmen.  The  number  of  fatalities  to 
trainmen  in  this  class  of  accidents  is  nearly  equally  distributed  among 
collisions,  falling  from  trains,  locomotives,  or  cars,  and  being  struck 
by  trains,  locomotives,  or  cars.  When  all  classes  of  employees  are 
taken  into  account  the  last-named  cause  is  responsible  for  the  greatest 
number  of  fatalities. 

"Of  the  fatalities  to  passengers,  collisions  account  for  more  than 
any  other  single  cause,  although  the  number  due  to  jumping  on  or 
off  trains,  locomotives,  or  cars  is  nearly  as  great.  In  the  matter  of 
injuries,  however,  collisions  are  far  ahead,  being  responsible  for  more 
than  35  per  cent  of  the  total  injuries  to  passengers.  Taking  both  pas- 
sengers and  employees  into  account,  it  is  seen  that  collisions  are  re- 
sponsible for  a  much  higher  number  of  deaths  and  injuries  than  any 
other  one  class  of  accidents."2 


RAILWAY  ACCIDENTS  FOR  THE  YEARS   1888  TO   1906. 

[Fom  the  Nineteenth  Annual  Report  of  the  Interstate  Commerce  Commission  on  the  Statistics 
of    Railways   in   the    United    States,   page    109.] 


Year  ending  June 
30 — 


Employees. 


Killed.       Injured 


Passengers. 


Killed.    I  Injured. 


Other   persons. 


Killed.      Injured 


Total. 


Killed.    I  Injured. 


1891 
1892 

1893 
1894 
1895 
1896 
1897 
1898 
1899 
1900 
1901 
1902 
1903 
1904 
1905 
1906 


2,070 
1,972 
2,451 
2,660 
2,554 
2,727 
1,823 
1,811 
1,861 
1,693 
i,958 
2,210 
2,550 
2,675 
2,969 
3,606 
3.632 
3,36i 
3,929 


20,148 
20,028 
22,396 
26,140 
28,267 
31,729 
23,422 
25,696 
29,696 
27,667 
31,761 
34,923 
39,643 
41,142 
50,524 
60,481 
67,067 
66,833 
76,701 


315 
310 
286 
293 
376 
299 
324 
170 
181 
222 
221 
239 
249 
282 
345 
355 
441 
537 
359 


2,138 
2,146 
2,425 
2,972 
3,227 
3.229 
3.034 
2,375 
2,873 
2,795 
2,945 
3,442 
4,128 
4,988 
6,683 
8,231 
9,i  1 1 
10,457 
10,764 


2,897 

3,541 
3,598 
4.076 
4,217 
4.320 
4,300 
4,155 
4.406 
4,522 
4,680 
4,674 
5,066 
5,498 
5.274 
5,879 
5.973 
5,805 
6,330 


3,602 
4,135 
4,206 
4,769 
5,158 
5,435 
5,433 
5,677 
5,845 
6,269 
6,176 
6,255 
6,549 
7,209 
7,455 
7,841 
7,977 
8,718 
10,241 


5,282 
5,823 
6,335 
7,029 
7,U7 
7,346 
6,447 
6,136 
6,448 
6,437 
6,859 
7,123 
7,86s 
8,455 
8,588 
9,840 

10,046 
9,703 

10,618 


25,888 
26,309 
29,027 
33.881 
36,652 
40,393 
31,889 
33-748 
38,687 
36,731 
40,882 
44,620 
50,320 
53,339 
64,662 
76,553 
84,155 
86,008 
97,7o6 


xText  of  the  19th  Annual  Report  on  the  Statistics  of  Railroads  in  the  United 
States  for  the  year  ending  June  30,  1906. 

2Xineteenth  Annual  Report  of  the  Interstate  Commerce  Commission  on  the 
Statistics  of  Railways  in  the  United  States,  p.    112. 


r,i 


In  1899  the  English  Government  appointed  ,1  commission  composed 
of  members  of  the  House  of  Lords  and  Common-,  representative 
the  railway  companies,  railway  employees,  experts,  and  Government 

officials,  with  a  view  of  determining  whether  the  accidents  to  railway 
employees  were  so  numerous  as  to  constitute  it  a  dangerous  trade. 
The  following-  table  indicates  that  the  employment  of  shunters  C  switch- 
men) is  far  more  dangerous  than  any  other  occupation  save  seamen, 
and  that  the  average  work  on  railways  is  almost  as  dangerous  as  min- 
ing, and  also  illustrates  the  relative  frequency  of  accidents  in  other 
occupations.1 

NUMBER  OF  EMPLOYEES  KILLED  AND  INJURED   FROM   ALL  CAUSES   PER    1,000 
EMPLOYED  IN  VARIOUS  OCCUPATIONS. 


Industry. 


Number 
killed. 


Number 
injured. 


Railway  servants  in  general,  excluding  contractors'     men,     clerks, 

and   mechanics    

Goods   guards   and   brakemen 

Permanent-way  men  or  platelayers 

Shunters     ■. 

Men  porters  (railway) 

Seamen    (merchant   service) 

Coal   miners    (underground) 

Coal    miners     (surface) 

Metalliferous    mines    (underground) 

Metalliferous  mines    (surface) 

Factories,    textile    (males) 

Factories,    textile    (females) 

Factories,    nontextile     (males) 

Factories,   nontextile    (females) 

Factories,   extraction   of   metals    (males) 

Factories,   shipbuilding   (males) 

Factories,    dock   laborers 


1.24 
2.92 

5.08 

LIS 
5-2 

1-37 
0.92 
1-34 

0-43 


31.0 

61 .0 

16.0 

78.0 

63.0 
Unknown. 
Unknown. 
Unknown. 
Unknown. 
Unknown. 
6.2 
2-7 

^3-8 
2.0 

16.4 

39-3 

S7-o 


ACCIDENTS  AND  INJURIES. 

The  total  number  of  deaths  reported  during  the  census  year  of 
1900  was  57,513,  of  which  43,414  were  males  and  14,099  were  females, 
and  the  proportion  of  deaths  from  these  causes  in  1.000  deaths  from 
all  known  causes  was  57.6.  In  1890  the  corresponding  proportion 
was  53.7.  In  the  registration  area  the  rate  was  96  per  100,000  of 
population.  In  1890  the  death  rate  was  91.9.  The  rate  in  the  cities 
was  somewhat  higher  than  in  rural  districts,  and  the  rate  for  males 
was  about  three  times  as  high  (125.4)  as  it  was  among  females  (42.2). 
This  is  simply  due  to  the  more  sheltered  position  of  females  and  because 
males  alone  are  generally  engaged  in  the  more  dangerous  operations. 


'Dangerous  Trades,  Oliver,  pp.  199,  200. 


62 


The  following  table  shows  for  the  registration  area  and  its  sub- 
divisions the — 

DEATH  RATES  FROM  ACCIDENTS  AND  INJURIES    DURING    THE    CENSUS    YEAR 
IN  EACH  OF  THREE  AGE  GROUPS  PER  100,000  OF  POPULATION. 


Registration   area. 

Under   15. 

15   to   44. 

45  and  over. 

Total    

67.0 

89.8 

150.5 

Ss-4 
48.6 

148.7 
3i-i 

223.8 

78.0 

70.2 
8o-5 
50.9 
63-7 
80.6 
46.7 
68.2 
86.1 
50.3 
57-2 
72.7 
41-3 

94-3 

156.6 
33-3 
73-4 

122.3 
24.9 
73-1 

122.4 
25-9 
73-9 

122. 1 

23-1 

163.8 

250.7 

80. 1 

Males    

States    

131-2 
187.8 

75-8 
139-7 
206.7 

77-9 

Males     

Males    

Rural     

169.5 
73-5 

From  this  table  we  learn  that  the  highest  death  rates  from  acci- 
dents occurred  in  persons  45  years  and  over,  and  the  lowest  in  chil- 
dren under  the  age  of  15,  which  indicates  that  employment  in  factories, 
mines,  and  workshops  influences  to  a  great  extent  the  number  of  acci- 
dents and  injuries.  The  rates  for  females  are  the  lowest  in  all  three 
age  groups,  for  reasons  already  assigned.  Woman  occupies  a  more 
favorable  position  even  in  childhood,  on  account  of  the  more  reckless 
disposition  of  boys,  whose  rates  are  probably  increased  by  deaths  from 
drowning,  falls,  burns,  gunshot  wounds,  railroad  accidents,  etc. 

An  attempt  to  determine  the  number  of  persons  injured  to  1,000 
employed  in  the  factories  was  made  in  the  State  of  New  York  during 
1899.  The  data  are  based  upon  three  months'  observations  in  a 
selected  list  of  factories,  and  are  not  regarded  by  the  commissioner  of 
labor  and  chief  factory  inspector  of  the  State  as  absolutely  accurate. 

NUMBER   OF   PERSONS    INJURED   TO    1,000    EMPLOYED. 


Industry. 


Number. 


Clothing,    millinery,    laundering,    etc 

Leather,   rubber,   pearl,   etc 

Textiles    

Printing   and    allied   trades 

Food,  tobacco,  and  liquors 

Stone  and  clay  products 

Wood    

Building    industry    

Metals,    machinery,   and   apparatus.. 

Public   utilities    

Pulp,    paper,   and   cardboard 

Chemicals,   oils,   and   explosives 


1-35 

3-2i 

8.91 

9.19 

I3-5I 

15-18 

18.42 

26.20 

26.57 

37-28 

41.46 

44.06 


6.3 

OCCUPATIONS    INVOLVING    THE    INHALATION    01 
ORGANIC    GASES    AND    VAPORS. 

Whether  the  effluvia  from  sewers,  stables,  stock  yards,  slaughtering 
and  packing  houses;  glue,  candle,  and  soap  factories;  hide  depots, 
tanneries,  fertilizer-making,  etc.,  arc  injurious  to  health  remains  an 
open  question.  Many  authors  insist  that  the  olfactory  organs  are  alone 
offended,  and  point  to  the  mortality  statistics,  which  indicate  that  the 
average  age  of  such  employees  is  quite  high.  Others  hold  that  weak- 
lings rarely  engage  in  such  occupations,  and  that  the  effluvia,  consist- 
ing, as  they  do,  of  ammonia  and  sulphurated  gases,  are  fully  as  injuri- 
ous as  the  inhalation  of  sewer  air,  which,  judging  from  experiments  in 
animals,  would  appear  to  increase  the  susceptibility  to  infectious  dis- 
eases by  diminishing  the  power  of  resistance.  Stift  maintains  that 
hydrogen  and  ammonium  sulphides,  chiefly  derived  from  decomposi- 
tion of  animal  matter  and  usually  present  in  privy  vaults,  cesspools, 
and  sewers,  are  blood  poisons  when  present  to  the  extent  of  about 
1/4,000  volumes  per  hundred.  The  same  author  believes  that  the 
inhalation  of  sulphureted  hydrogen  affects  directly  the  terminal  fila- 
ments of  the  pneumogastric  nerve,  and  through  these  sets  up  an  irrita- 
tion of  the  respiratory  and  cardiac  centers — in  fact,  of  the  entire 
medulla  oblongata — and  if  continued  sufficiently  long  induces  paralysis 
of  this  function. 

In  sewer  air  the  danger  is  intensified  by  the  excess  of  carbonic-acid 
gas  and  deficiency  of  oxygen,  and  special  precaution  should  be  taken 
to  exhaust  the  foul  air  before  sewer  employees  or  scavengers  are 
allowed  to  descend. 

The  general  effects  of  the  foul  odors  upon  those  unaccustomed  to 
work  in  the  so-called  "offensive  trades"  are  nausea,  vomiting,  head- 
ache, loss  of  appetite,  diarrhoea,  a  general  depression,  and  weakness. 
It  is  true  the  workmen  become  gradually  accustomed  to  these  emana- 
tions without  any  apparent  injury,  but  even  this  does  not  justify  the 
assumption  that  they  are  of  no  consequence. 

Every  community  provides  for  the  collection  and  disposal  of  dead 
animals,  which  is  usually  done  by  contract,  and  the  animals  are  taken 
to  some  point  beyond  the  town  limits,  flayed,  and  worked  up,  so  as  to 
utilize  the  skin,  hair,  bones,  fats,  horns,  etc.  There  is.  however,  a 
certain  element  of  danger  from  the  transmission  of  infectious  diseases 
h'ke  anthrax,  glanders,  and  tuberculosis,  and  hence  all  such  work  should 
be  done  under  strict  sanitary  control. 


64 

EMPLOYMENT  OF  WOMEN  AND  CHILDREN. 

In  the  face  of  the  many  adverse  circumstances  under  which  labor 
is  often  performed,  it  is  but  natural  that  the  immature  employees  and 
females  should  suffer  most.  The  former  not  infrequently  inherit  a 
weak  constitution,  or  acquire  it  by  insanitary  homes  and  deficient  food, 
and  quite  a  number  are  obliged  to  enter  upon  active  work  long  before 
their  bodies  are  sufficiently  developed.  Quite  apart  from  the  fact  that 
child  labor  is  a  menace  to  education,  morals,  and  good  citizenship,  the 
effects  of  premature  and  involuntary  labor  upon  the  health  and  physical 
welfare  of  the  child  are  extremely  detrimental.  Quetelet,  in  his 
Physique  Sociale,  as  early  as  1869  demonstrated  that  the  muscles  of  the 
average  child  attain  only  at  the  age  of  13  or  14  a  certain  amount  of 
strength  and  capacity  for  work.  Up  to  this  time  the  muscular  fibers 
contain  a  larger  percentage  of  water,  and  in  consequence  are  very 
tender  and  immature.  Demetjeff,  cited  by  Rubner1  determined  the 
lifting  power  of  the  arms  and  trunk  at  different  ages  of  the  working 
classes  to  be  as  follows : 


LIFTING  POWER  OF  THE  ARMS  AND  TRUNK   OF   THE   WORKING   CLASSES   AT 

DIFFERENT  AGES. 


Age. 


Age. 


Kilo- 
grams. 


14   years    

16  years   

18  years   

20   to   29   years 


30  to  35  years. 
35  to  40  years.. 
40  to  50  years. . 
50  to   60   years. 


150 
160 
148 
134 


These  figures  clearly  indicate  that  the  average  boy  at  the  age  of  14 
possesses  about  one-half  the  muscular  strength  of  an  average  adult 
between  35  and  40  years  of  age. 

As  a  consequence  of  imperfect  muscular  development,  it  is  not 
surprising  that  a  large  percentage  of  young  persons  engaged  in  work- 
shops, factories,  or  even  at  the  writing  desk  or  merchant's  counter, 
develop  lateral  curvature  of  the  spine  and  other  muscular  deformities, 
not  to  mention  general  weakness  and  predisposition  to  rickets,  tuber- 
culosis, and  other  pulmonary  diseases.  All  of  the  bad  effects  are  nat- 
urally intensified  by  insanitary  environment,  especially  when  the  occupa- 
tions are  attended  by  the  inhalation  of  dust,  injurious  gases,  and  impure 
air.  The  report  of  the  commission  on  child  labor,  1 833-1 834,  appointed 
by  the  English  Parliament,  contains  many  interesting  facts ;  but  in  spite 
of  legislative  efforts  Dr.  Charles  W.  Roberts2  has  occasion  to  refer 

'Lehrbuch  d.  Hygiene,  Leipzig  und  Wien,  1906,  p.  709. 
2London  Lancet,  1875,  p.  274. 


65 

to  the  prevalence  of  "flat  feet,"  "knock-knee,"  and  the  premature 

condition  of  youthful  employees. 

Doctor  Roberts  says:  "In  general  conformation  'A  body  the  factory 
children  do  not  compare  favorably  with  the  agricultural.  In  the  manu 
facturing  towns  the  children  arc  short  of  stature,  have  thick  limbl  and 
large  feet  and  hands,  and  are  muscular  and  in  tolerable  condition  as  to 
fat.  They  produce  the  impression  on  the  mind  of  having  bodies  too  old 
for  their  heads  (and  ages).  'Plat  foot,"  with  a  general  disposition  to 
'knock-knee,'  is  very  common  among  the  factory  children,  while  both 
are  rare  among  the  agricultural,  among  whom  there  is  a  disposition  to 
the  opposite  state,  of  bowleg." 

Doctor  Roberts1  examined  19,840  English  boys  and  men.  Of 
these,  5,915  belonged  to  the  nonlaboring  classes — school  boys,  naval 
and  military  cadets,  medical  and  university  students;  13,931  belonged 
to  the  artisan  class.  The  difference  in  height,  weight,  and  chest  meas- 
urement from  13  to  16  years  of  age  was  as  follows: 


DIFFERENCE   IN   HEIGHT,  WEIGHT,   AND      CHEST      MEASUREMENT 
ENGLISH   BOYS   AND   MEN   AT    SPECIFIED  AGES. 


OF      19,846 


Class. 


At  13 

years. 


At   14 
years. 


At    15 
years. 


At    16 
years. 


Average  height  in  inches: 

Nonlaboring     

Artisan   


58.79 
55-93 


61 .  11 
57-76 


63-47 
60.58 


66.40 
62.93 


Difference 


Average  weight   in   pounds: 

Nonlaboring     

Artisan    


Difference 


Average  chest  girth   in  inches: 

Nonlaboring     

Artisan   


|            2.66 

3-35 

2.89 

3-47 

88.60 
1         78.27 

99-21 
84.61 

110.42 
96.79 

128.34 
108.70 

1         10.33 

14.60 

13-63 

19.64 

1 

2S.41 
25.24 

26.28 
26.28 

30.72 

27-51 

33  08 
28.97 

Difference 


Congress,  on  February  19th,  1907,  authorized  a  federal  investiga- 
tion of  the  subject  of  child  labor  under  the  direction  of  the  United 
States  Bureau  of  Labor  and  the  results  of  such  investigation  may  more 
clearly  define  the  need  for  federal  legislation  or  indicate  other  means 
adapted  to  regulate  the  evil. 

During  the  Census  year  of  1900  there  were  1.752,187  children 
under  16  years  of  age  employed  in  gainful  occupations ;  of  these  over 
80,000  were  employed  in  the  textile  industry;  7,116  in  the  glass  in- 
dustry; about  25,000  in  mines  and  quarries;  12,000  in  the  manufacture 
cf  tobacco  and  cigars ;  over  10,000  in  wood  industries :  over  7,000. 
mostly  girls,  were  employed  in  laundries;  2.000  in  bakeries:   13S.000 


1  Cited  by  John  Spargo,  Bitter  Cry  of  the  Children.  1006,  p.  96. 


66 

as  waiters  and  servants ;  42,000  boys  as  messengers  and  20,000  boys 
and  girls  in  stores.  Mr.  John  Spargo  in  "The  Bitter  Cry  of  the  Chil- 
dren," on  page  211,  gives  the  result  of  his  investigation  covering  213 
cases  of  child  labor  with  a  view  of  determining  the  cause.  He  found 
that  52  children  were  obliged  to  work  because  their  father  earned  less 
than  $10.00  a  week;  in  13  instances  the  father  was  out  of  employment; 
in  19  the  father  was  sick;  in  12  the  father  had  died ;  in  4  the  father  had 
deserted  the  family;  in  4  other  instances  he  was  intemperate,  and  in  1 
case  the  father  was  in  prison.  He  concludes  that  in  these  105  instances 
the  primary  cause  was  poverty. 

Of  108  other  children,  the  causes  are  given  as  follows:  School 
difficulties,  30;  "because  friends  went  to  work,"  18;  "to  get  better 
clothes,"  11;  "to  enable  parents  to  save,"  17;  sickness  while  in  school 
5 ;  father's  laziness,  2 ;  not  determined,  25. 

Child  labor  differs  in  degree  as  well  as  in  kind.  The  ordinary  mes- 
senger or  newsboy  may  not  sacrifice  his  health,  but  his  morals  and  his 
education  must  inevitably  suffer.  And  so  we  see  different  gradations 
until  some  of  the  most  injurious  forms  of  child  labor  are  encountered. 

Dr.  Annie  S.  Daniel,  in  speaking  of  her  personal  observations  in 
New  York,  tells1  us  that  a  child  3  years  old  can  straighten  out  the 
leaves  of  tobacco  and  can  stick  together  the  materials  which  form  the 
stems  of  artificial  flowers.  At  4  he  can  put  the  cover  on  paper  boxes. 
Between  4  and  6  he  can  sew  on  buttons  and  pull  basting  threads.  A 
girl  from  8  to  12  can  finish  trousers  as  well  as  her  mother.  After  she 
is  12,  if  of  good  size,  she  can  earn  more  money  in  a  factory,  because  she 
will  be  accepted  if  her  size  justifies  the  evasion  of  the  law.  The  boys 
practically  perform  the  same  labor  as  the  girls,  except  that  they  leave 
home  earlier  and  engage  in  street  work  as  peddlers,  newsboys,  or  boot- 
blacks. Doctor  Daniel  has  actually  seen  two  children  under  3  years 
of  age  working  in  the  tenements  of  New  York — one,  a  boy  2j4  years  of 
age,  assisting  the  mother,  and  four  other  children  under  the  age  of  12, 
in  making  artificial  flowers.  "These  children  earn  from  50  cents  to  $1.50 
a  week,  obviously  at  the  expense  of  health  and  education — rights  which 
neither  the  parents  nor  the  community  nor  the  State  have  a  right  to 
withhold." 

A  feeling  seems  to  exist  in  Washington  that  there  is  no  special  need 
for  the  enactment  of  a  law  to  prevent  or  regulate  child  labor,  but  the 
same  class  of  people  told  us  years  ago,  that  we  had  so  slums,  and  hence 
there  was  no  occasion  for  the  betterment  of  the  housing  conditions, 
when,  as  a  matter  of  fact,  investigations  have  shown  conclusively  that 
in  many  respects  we  are  as  badly,  if  not  worse,  off  than  the  cities  of 

Charities,  April  1,  1905. 


67 

New  York  and  Chicago.  Those  who  are  familiar  with  the  subject 
know,  that  there  is  a  local  situation  which  demands  legislation.  But 
whether  the  number  is  large  or  small  it  matters  little,  and  it  is  clearly 
the  duty  of  every  community  to  resort  to  preventive  measures  against 
this  hydra-headed  evil. 

It  has  been  asked,  "What  is  the  use  of  enacting  child  labor  laws 
when  such  atrocious  instances  are  possible  in  the  city  of  New  York, 
where  child  labor  law  exists?"  and  it  must  be  granted,  that  just  such 
evils  will  be  witnessed  in  New  York  or  any  other  American  city  so  long 
as  public  opinion  and  the  conscience  of  the  American  people  is  not  suffi- 
ciently aroused  to  demand  the  enforcement  of  the  law. 

It  has  been  estimated,  that  there  are  in  this  city  between  fifteen 
hundred  and  two  thousand  children  under  the  age  of  fifteen  engaged 
in  wage-earning  occupations.  And  we  feel  that  the  enactment  of  a 
suitable  law  would  guard  these  children  and  afford  them  a  better  oppor- 
tunity of  becoming  useful  citizens,  and  the  consumers  would  at  least 
have  the  satisfaction  of  knowing  that  they  are  not  stained  with  the 
sweat  and  blood  of  helpless  children. 

How  many  more  of  the  six  thousand  children  between  the  ages  of 
eight  and  twelve,  who  are  not  now  at  school,  are  engaged  in  wage- 
earning  occupations  we  do  not  know.  But  whether  they  are  at  work 
because  of  the  necessities  of  their  parents  or  because  of  their  own  disin- 
clination to  study,  the  law  should  intervene  and  establish  an  effective 
remedy. 

It  has  been  urged,  and  no  doubt  in  many  instances  quite  correctly, 
that  child  labor  is  encouraged  by  the  greed  of  the  employers,  but  the 
writer  is  in  a  position  to  know  that  the  business  men  of  this  city  would 
hail  with  delight  the  enactment  of  a  child  labor  law.  As  it  is  now,  it 
is  not  always  an  easy  matter  to  refuse  to  lend  a  helping  hand  in  appar- 
ently deserving  and  pathetic  cases. 

It  is  indeed  deplorable  that  so  little  has  been  accomplished  in  the 
way  of  educating  the  public  to  a  sound  and  full  appreciation  of  the 
evil  consequences  of  child  labor,  and  it  is  especially  humiliating  to 
know  that  the  District  of  Columbia,  the  seat  of  the  National  Govern- 
ment, is  the  only  community  with  the  exception  of  Georgia,  Idaho, 
Nevada  and  the  Indian  Territory,  which  is  at  present  without  legisla- 
tion of  some  kind  on  the  subject  of  child  labor. 

Women,  on  account  of  their  imperfectly  developed  muscular  system 
and  more  delicate  physique,  are  unfitted  for  hard  work;  nor  should 
they  be  obliged  to  work  steadily  in  a  sedentary  position  especially  at 
the  sewing  machine  or  other  occupations  involving  the  use  of  the  lower 
extremities.    Special  protection  should  be  extended  to  them  during  the 


68 

child-bearing  period.  It  is  a  matter  of  constant  observation  that  women 
who  have  to  deny  themselves  proper  rest  and  care  during  the  last  six 
weeks  after  confinement  are  very  liable  to  suffer  from  hemorrhages  and 
chronic  uterine  diseases,  while  miscarriages  and  premature  births  are 
not  infrequent  results  of  overwork.  Recent  statistics  collected  by 
Doctor  Neisser  (1907)  indicate  that  such  accidents  are  quite  frequent 
among  farmers'  wives  and  women  employed  in  the  jewelry  industry, 
where  the  motor  power  is  supplied  by  the  feet. 

INFANT  MORTALITY  IN  RELATION  TO  THE  OCCUPATION 

OF  WOMEN. 

Attention  has  been  directed  on  another  page  to  the  high  rate  of 
infant  mortality  in  certain  mill  towns  of  Massachusetts.  This  subject 
has  received  careful  attention,  especially  in  England.  The  investiga- 
tions made  by  Sir  John  Simon  and  his  colleagues  into  the  sanitary 
condition  of  England  between  1859  and  1865  showed  "that  in  propor- 
tion as  adult  women  were  taking  part  in  factory  labor  or  in  agriculture 
the  mortality  of  their  infants  rapidly  increased."  Among  other  causes, 
Simon  attributes  the  excessive  mortality  of  infants  under  1  year,  which 
in  some  registration  districts  was  from  two  and  a  quarter  to  nearly  three 
times  as  high  as  in  standard  districts,  "to  occupational  differences 
among  inhabitants,  there  being  certain  large  towns  where  women  are 
greatly  engaged  in  branches  of  industry  away  from  home,  where,  con- 
sequently these  houses  are  ill  kept,  where  the  children  are  little  looked 
after,  and  where  infants  who  should  be  at  the  breast  are  improperly 
fed  or  starved,  or  have  their  cries  of  hunger  and  distress  quieted  by 
those  various  fatal  opiates  which  are  in  such  request  at  the  centers  of 
our  manufacturing  industry."1 

Fifty  years  have  elapsed  since  Simon  declared  "infants  perish  under 
the  neglect  and  mismanagement  which  their  mothers'  occupation  im- 
plies." The  subject  has  since  been  studied  by  the  medical  officers  of 
the  home  office,  the  local  government  board,  and  1,800  local  health 
boards  in  England.  Doctor  Newman  has  carefully  surveyed  the  facts 
concerning  the  number  of  females  employed  in  gainful  occupations, 
the  percentage  of  married  women,  the  infant  mortality  rate  in  towns 
having  a  low  percentage  of  women  so  employed,  as  compared  with  tex- 
tile towns,  where  the  percentage  of  female  employees  is  high.  He  has 
given  careful  consideration  to  the  character  and  condition  of  the  work, 
the  length  of  working  hours,  employment  before  and  after  childbirth, 
and  the  sanitation  of  workshops.     He  dwells  very  justly  upon  the  evil 

'Papers  Relating  to  the  Sanitary  State  of  the  People  of  England,  1858. 


69 

effects  of  the  added  strains  of  factory  life,  such  as  piece  work,  hard 
physical  lahor,  injurious  trade  processes,  fatigue,  etc. 

Doctor  Newman  tells  how  in  some  trades,  like-  brickmaking,  tin- 
plate  works,  iron  hollow  ware,  certain  hardware  trades,  jam  and  sauce 
factories,  and  mat  works,  women  are  not  in t recently  employed  in  car- 
rying or  lifting  weights  altogether  beyond  their  physical  endurance.  He 
emphasizes  the  various  dangers  to  which  the  female  employees  are  ex- 
posed, and  summarizes  the  direct  injuries  as  follows:  (a)  Accidents 
from  machinery,  materials,  and  other  external  agents;  (b)  injury  or 
poisoning  from  toxic  substances,  or  injury  from  excessive  dust,  fumes, 
vapor,  or  extremes  of  temperature  (he  refers  also  to  anthrax  infections 
in  horsehair  factories,  tetanus  in  jute  works,  lung  diseases  in  dusty 
trades,  and  abortion  in  lead  works):  (c)  injury  through  fatigue  and 
strain,  long  hours,  insufficient  periods  of  rest  for  food;  (d)  injury 
derived  from  defective  sanitary  conditions,  such  as  bad  ventilation, 
dampness,  insufficiency  or  unsuitability  of  sanitary  conveniences ; 
and  (e)  too  short  a  period  of  rest  at  the  time  of  childbirth.1 

He  declares  that  the  official  reports  of  factory  inspectors  and  of 
medical  officers  of  health  reveal  ample  evidences  of  these  injuries, 
and  adds :  "Where  the  conditions  resulting  in  these  evils,  coupled  with 
the  absence  of  the  mother  from  home,  are  present,  the  infant  mortality 
is  high ;  where  they  are  not  present  it  is  usually  low."  He  describes 
the  general  effects  of  the  factory  system  at  Dundee,  where  24,879 
women  and  girls  are  employed  in  the  jute  and  hemp  factories,  and 
another  3,000  women  are  employed  in  other  textile  works.  One- 
quarter  of  the  women,  or  about  6,000,  are  married,  and  about  16  per 
cent  of  all  the  girls  in  Dundee  between  the  ages  of  10  and  14  are  em- 
ployed in  these  trades. 

The  infant  mortality  rate  for  Dundee  "is  exceptionally  high,  and 
for  the  decennial  1893-1902  was  176  per  1,000  births."  In 
1904  there  were  788  infant  deaths,  129  of  which  occurred  within  the 
first  week,  and  all  but  four  of  these  were  medically  certified  as  due  to 
"prematurity  and  immaturity."  Nearly  one-half  of  the  total  number 
occurred  in  the  first  three  months  of  life.  Inquiry  was  made  into  the 
social  conditions  of  the  home  life  of  364  of  these  infant  deaths.  "The 
occupations,  or  former  occupations,  of  the  mothers  were  as  follows : 
84  weavers,  warpers,  or  winders ;  105  spinners,  piecers,  or  shifters ; 
88  preparers ;  12  sack  machinists  or  sack  sewers ;  27  miscellaneous ; 
20  unoccupied,  and  25  concerning  which  there  was  no  return  obtainable. 
Of  the  cases  inquired  into  13.2  per  cent  of  these  mothers  worked  at  the 

1  Infant  Mortality,  George  Newman.  ML  D.,  New  York,  1907. 


factory  to  within  a  week  of  childbirth.  Fifteen  women  worked  to 
within  a  few  hours  of  childbirth." 

Doctor  Newman's  final  conclusion  on  the  subject  of  infant  mortality 
in  relation  to  the  occupation  of  women  is  as  follows :' 

"No  doubt  the  factory  plays  a  part,  but  the  home  plays  a  vastly 
greater  part,  in  the  causation  of  infant  mortality  in  the  towns  where 
women  are  employed  at  the  mills.  There  are  two  influences  at  work — 
first,  the  direct  injury  to  the  physique  and  character  of  the  individual 
caused  by  much  of  the  factory  employment  of  women,  and,  secondly, 
the  indirect  and  reflex  injury  to  the  home  and  social  life  of  the  worker. 
We  can  not  afford  to  forget  either  of  these  points  in  attempting  to 
estimate  the  operations  of  the  factory  in  infant  mortality.  It  is  because 
they  have  not  been  sufficiently  correlated  together  that  fallacy  has  arisen 
in  the  past.  But  even  yet  we  have  not  finished.  'Infantile  mortality  in 
Lancashire,'  writes  an  experienced  medical  officer  of  health  for  a  town 
in  that  county  with  an  infant  mortality  in  1904  of  222,  'is,  I  am  sorry  to 
say,  as  much  a  financial  as  a  hygienic  question.'  Why  do  married 
women  work  in  the  mills  ?  is  the  question  this  medical  officer  has 
reached.  His  answer  is  that  'a  weaver's  wages  will  not  allow  of  the 
wife's  remaining  at  home,  considering  the  high  rents  and  rates,  and  so 
both  go — which  is  the  rule — and  a  hand-to-mouth  existence  results  even 
for  themselves,  let  alone  the  little  ones,  who  are  left  in  the  intervals  to 
the  mercies  of  the  nurse,  who,  as  a  rule,  takes  in  the  babies  to  eke  out 
her  own  husband's  wages.  Much  good  may  be  done  by  hygienic  tuition, 
but  I  am  certain  that  the  root  of  the  whole  matter  with  us  is,  as  I  have 
said,  comparatively  low  wages  and  high  rents  and  rates." 

In  the  discussion  of  infant  mortality  it  would  be  unfair  not  to  em- 
phasize other  facts,  such  as  impure  and  dirty  milk  and  one-room  tene- 
ments. Of  54,047  infantile  deaths  which  were  investigated  both  in  the 
Old  and  the  New  World  as  to  the  character  of  feeding,  it  was  found 
that  86  per  cent  had  been  artificially  fed.  Neumann,2  in  investigating 
2.71 1  infantile  deaths  in  Berlin,  found  that  1,792  occurred  in  one-room 
apartments,  7^4  in  two-room  apartments,  122  in  three-room  apartments, 
and  43  in  apartments  of  four  rooms  and  over. 

It  is  hoped  that  Dr.  Newman's  study  of  the  subject  will  result 
everywhere  in  the  amelioration  of  existing  conditions,  for,  as  pointed 
out  by  the  author  and  Sir  John  Simon,  a  high  death  rate  of  infants  sug- 
gests racial  degeneracy  and  is  at  least  "an  indication  of  the  existence 
of  evil  conditions  in  the  homes  of  the  people — which  are,  after  all,  the 
vitals  of  the  nation." 

Dr.  Daniels,  in  speaking  of  the  female  labor  question  in  New  York, 

Jlnfant  mortality,  Newman,  p.  137. 

2Deutsche  Med.  Wochenschft,  Leipzig,  1904,  p.  1723. 


7* 

says:  "That  in  no  case  in  over  515  families  examined  by  her  was  any 
woman  working  other  than  from  dire  necessity.  The  average  weekly 
income  from  the  man's  work  was  $3.81.  The  average  rent  was  $9.00 
per  month.  The  average  family  to  be  supported  was  4J/2  persons.  As 
it  requires  more  than  two  weeks'  wages  to  pay  one  month's  rent  it  is 
evident  that  the  women  and  children  must  work  or  the  family  go 
hungry."     (Charities,  April  1st,  1905.) 

Those  interested  in  female  labor  as  carried  on  in  the  "sweat  shops" 
of  New  York  at  the  rate  of  $3.00  to  $4.00  a  week,  should  not  fail  to 
read  "The  Long  Day;  The  True  Story  of  a  New  York  Working  Girl 
as  Told  by  Herself." 

SPECIAL  MEASURES  FOR  THE  PREVENTION  OF  TUBER- 
CULOSIS AMONG  WAGE-EARNERS. 

There  is  abundant  statistical  evidence  to  show  that  industrial  work- 
ers pay  a  very  heavy  tribute  to  the  so-called  "white  plague ;"  nor  is  it 
cause  of  wonder  when  the  many  unfavorable  factors  to  which  they  are 
subjected  are  considered,  such  as  crowded  and  insanitary  workshops, 
deficient  light,  overwork,  long  hours  in  a  bad  air,  dampness,  exposure 
to  extremes  of  heat  and  cold,  sudden  changes  in  temperature,  and  the 
inhalation  of  irritating  dust,  vapors,  etc.  All  of  these  factors  are  cal- 
culated to  lower  the  power  of  resistance  and  favor  the  spread  of  disease, 
especially  when  some  of  the  workmen  themselves  are  already  afflicted 
and  are  careless  in  the  disposition  of  their  expectoration. 

On  the  other  hand,  it  would  be  unfair  not  to  consider  the  influence 
of  home  environment,  such  as  unclean  and  crowded  or  otherwise 
insanitary  dwellings,  insufficient  or  improper  food,  and  last,  but  not 
least,  the  bad  effects  of  the  abuse  of  alcohol.  It  has  been  shown  that 
alcohol  not  only  affects  the  digestive  and  nervous  functions,  in  con- 
sequence of  which  the  general  nutrition  of  the  body  is  markedly  re- 
duced, but  the  habit  of  visiting  and  remaining  in  saloons  for  hours, 
sometimes  till  midnight,  deprives  the  individual  of  proper  rest  and 
exposes  him  to  the  poisonous  fumes  of  tobacco,  coal  and  carbonic-acid 
gases,  and  other  injurious  agents.  The  preventive  measures  are  partly 
the  duty  of  the  State,  which  should  regulate  the  air  space  and  ventilation 
of  the  workshops  and  dwellings  and  improve  the  working  conditions 
by  forced  ventilation  and  "wet  processes"  in  order  to  diminish  dust 
production,  and  exposure  to  irritating  gases.  On  the  other  hand,  it  is 
clearly  the  duty  of  the  workmen  themselves  and  the  community  at 
large  to  improve  social  and  housing  conditions.  In  view  of  the  undue 
prevalence  of  consumption  among  file  cutters,  metal  grinders,  stone- 
cutters, and  cotton,  flax,  and  tobacco  operatives,  persons  predisposed 


7* 

to  this  disease  should  be  cautioned  against  engaging  in  such  occupa- 
tions. Simple  printed  instructions  should  be  given  as  to  the  part  expec- 
toration plays  in  the  spread  of  consumption.  Cuspidors  in  sufficient 
number  and  properly  disinfected  should  be  provided,  preferably  one 
for  each  workman,  and  promiscuous  expectoration  should  be  forbidden. 

MEASURES  FOR  THE  PROTECTION  OF  WAGE-EARNERS. 

From  what  has  been  said  it  is  evident  that  the  laboring  classes  need 
special  protection  against  the  many  dangers  referred  to,  and  this  should 
emanate  from  the  State,  the  employers,  the  community  and  the  em- 
ployees themselves. 

One  of  the  important  predisposing  causes  to  disease  is  overwork  or 
fatigue,  because  the  accumulation  of  waste  products  in  the  blood,  from 
muscular  wear  and  tear,  together  with  the  expended  nervous  energy, 
combine  to  render  the  system  more  susceptible  to  disease.  Excessive 
work  is  inimical  to  health,  and  long  hours  and  hard  work  are  calcu- 
lated to  diminish  the  general  power  of  resistance,  and  thus  bring  about 
physical  deterioration.  Hence  the  necessity  of  laws  regulating  the 
hours  of  labor  and  the  enforcement  of  a  day  of  rest  as  contemplated  by 
the  Sunday  laws. 

Professor  Roth's  conclusions  on  this  subject  are  as  follows:1  I.  In 
order  to  prevent  a  state  of  chronic  fatigue  it  is  essential  that  the  amount 
of  work  be  regulated  by  the  capacity  of  the  individual.  2.  The  more 
intensive  the  work  and  the  shorter  the  intervals  of  rest  for  the  elimina- 
tion of  waste  products,  the  earlier  we  may  expect  manifestations  of 
fatigue  and  the  working  hours  must  be  regulated  accordingly.  3. 
Other  industrial  dangers  like  excessive  heat,  humidity,  violent  concus- 
sions, constrained  attitude,  overexercise  of  certain  groups  of  muscle, 
exposure  to  vitiated  air  and  toxic  agents  favor  premature  fatigue,  and 
should  be  controlled  by  rational  measures.  4.  Insufficient  and  improper 
food,  vicious  habits,  long  walks  to  place  of  work,  and  abuse  of  alcoholic 
drinks  lower  the  vital  powers  and  produce  premature  fatigue.  5. 
Monotonous  work  or  any  employment  involving  responsibility  and 
intense  mental  application  are  conducive  to  fatigue.  All  of  these  factors 
should  be  considered  and  controlled  by  suitable  preventive  measures, 
so  as  to  avoid  the  chronic  effects  of  fatigue,  which  are  generally  evinced 
by  anaemia,  digestive  derangements,  neurasthenia,  respiratory  and 
cardiac  difficulties. 

No  child  should  be  permitted  to  work  in  factories  and  wage-earning 

JErmuedung  durch  Berufsarbeit  Intern.    Kongress   fuer   Hygiene  und   Demo- 
gaphie,  Berlin,  1907,  Band,  ii,  p.  620. 


73 

occupations  under  the  age  of  14,  and  then  only  upon  presentation  of  a 

medical  certificate  that  it  is  free  from  physical  defects.  Such  children 
should  not  he  obliged  to  work  longer  than  six  hours,  with  a  two-hour 
interval  of  rest  after  the  first  three  hours,  so  that  they  may  he  able  to 
enjoy  their  noon  dinner.  Under  no  circumstances  should  they  he  per- 
mitted to  perform  night  work  or  engage  in  the  so-called  dangerous 
occupations.  The  same  may  he  said  of  individuals  between  the  age  of 
16  and  18  years,  who,  however,  may  be  permitted  to  work  eight  hours 
a  day,  with  proper  intervals  for  meals  and  rest. 

Women,  even  from  a  moral  standpoint,  should  not  be  permitted 
to  work  in  factories  or  shops  after  sundown.  The  laws  of  some  coun- 
tries prescribe  one  hour  for  nooning,  if  they  have  their  own  house- 
holds, and  their  exclusion  from  factories  six  weeks  before  and  after 
confinement,  while  in  other  countries  hard  labor  for  women  is  strictly 
forbidden. 

SANITATION  OF  WORKSHOPS  AND  QUARTERS  FOR 

EMPLOYEES. 

The  protection  of  wage-earners  should  extend  to  the  work  and 
workshops,  and,  in  case  the  employees  are  housed  by  the  employer,  also 
to  the  living  and  sleeping  quarters. 

A  sanitary  workshop  demands  sufficient  air  space  for  each  inmate, 
a  suitable  temperature,  proper  ventilation  and  illumination,  general 
cleanliness,  and  suitable  opportunities  for  personal  cleanliness.  The 
necessity  for  abundant  ventilation  is  apparent  when  it  is  recalled  that 
men  at  work  eliminate  more  carbonic-acid  gas  than  individuals  at 
rest,  and  that  in  the  majority  of  occupations  the  air  is  further  vitiated 
by  the  presence  of  dust  and  gases. 

The  question  of  illumination  is  not  only  important  for  the  preven- 
tion of  defective  vision  and  accidents,  but  when  recourse  is  had  to  arti- 
ficial illumination  the  additional  vitiation  of  the  air  must  be  considered. 
Such  matters,  which,  after  all,  are  largely  questions  of  public  health, 
should  not  be  left  to  the  individual  employer,  but  the  principles  of 
industrial  hygiene  which  ought  to  be  adopted  should  be  embodied  in 
suitable  laws  and  enforced  by  competent  inspectors.  Among  the  most 
dangerous  forms  of  workshops  is  one  class  which  most  State  laws 
entirely  ignore.  For  example,  under  the  law  of  the  State  of  New  York 
relating  to  manufacturing  in  tenement  houses,  33  distinct  industries 
may  be  carried  on  in  the  living  rooms  of  the  workers,  because  they 
involve  hand  work  or  simple  machinery.  There  are  over  23,000 
licensed  "home  factories"  in  the  city  of  New  York  alone.  Dr.  Annie 
S.  Daniels,  who  made  a  special  investigation  of  manufacturing  in  tene- 


74 

ments,  says1  "that  every  garment  worn  by  a  woman  is  found  being 
manufactured  in  tenement  rooms ;  the  same  is  true  of  clothing  worn 
by  infants  and  young  children.  In  addition  to  wearing  apparel  for 
men,  women,  and  children,  including  adornments  of  woman's  dress, 
the  flowers  and  feathers  for  her  hats,  the  hats  themselves,  and  neck- 
wear of  every  description,  she  found  the  manufacture  of  paper  boxes, 
cigars,  pocketbooks,  jewelry,  clocks,  watches,  wigs,  fur  garments,  paper 
bags,  etc.,  and  the  articles  frequently  handled  and  stored  in  infected 
rooms."  According  to  Doctor  Daniels,  among  the  150  families  tabu- 
lated by  her,  66  continued  at  work  during  the  entire  course  of  the  con- 
tagious disease  for  which  she  was  attending  the  family,  and  the  question 
naturally  arises,  How  many  germs  of  tuberculosis,  measles,  scarlet 
fever,  diphtheria,  and  other  infectious  diseases  may  be  sewed  in  the 
garments  made  in  the  tenement  "sweat  shops  ?"  And  last,  but  not  least, 
the  greatest  danger  falls  upon  the  workers — it  means  the  loss  of  health, 
physically  and  morally,  the  loss  of  home,  because  home  life  is  impossible 
in  a  tenement  workroom." 

Apart  from  the  occupations  referred  to,  numerous  bakeries,  candy, 
ice-cream,  and  milk  shops ;  butcher  shops  and  sausage  factories ;  bot- 
tling establishments ;  tailor,  cobbler,  and  other  repair  shops  are  carried 
on  in  basements  under  the  most  unsanitary  surroundings  as  regards 
workrooms  and  sleeping  quarters. 

CUBIC  AIR  SPACE  AND  AMOUNT  OF  FRESH  AIR  PER 

HOUR. 

Reference  has  been  made  to  the  baneful  effects  of  vitiated  air,  which 
are  of  course  intensified  when  the  occupation  is  attended  with  the  pro- 
duction of  dust  and  irritating  fumes  or  gases.  It  is  known  that  car- 
bonic acid  is  not  itself  a  toxic  agent,  but  an  excess  of  this  gas  in  the  air 
of  rooms  leads  to  a  deficiency  of  oxygen,  and  also  to  defective  elimina- 
tion of  carbonic  acid  from  the  system,  which  can  not  be  excreted  when- 
ever the  tension  of  carbonic  acid  in  the  air  exceeds  that  of  the  carbonic 
acid  in  the  blood.  In  order  that  the  respiratory  impurities  may  not  exceed 
certain  limits  (6  volumes  of  carbonic  acid  per  10,000),  it  has  been 
found  that  an  average  adult  requires  3,000  cubic  feet  of  fresh  air  per 
hour,  and  this  amount  should  be  supplied  without  discomfort  to  the 
occupants.  Experience  has  shown  that  the  air  of  a  room  can  not  be 
changed  oftener  than  three  times  in  one  hour  in  winter  without  caus- 
ing a  disagreeable  draft ;  hence  every  occupant  should  have  a  cubic  air 
space  of  1,000  feet.    This  is  the  ideal  standard,  and  section  100  of  the 

'Charities,  April  1,  1905. 


75 

factory  laws  of  New  York  of  1901  (as  amended  by  chapter  129,  Acts 
of  1906),  relating  to  certain  manufactures  in  tenement  ,  provides 
"that  the  whole  number  of  persons  therein  shall  not  exceed  one  to 
each  1,000  cubic  feet  of  air  space."  Such  an  ideal  standard,  however, 
is  not  always  attainable  in  workshops,  and  it  is  believed  that  for 
practical  purposes  an  air  space  of  from  400  to  500  cubic  feet  per  capita 
will  suffice. 

The  States  of  New  York,  Indiana,  Michigan,  New  Jersey,  Ohio, 
Pennsylvania,  and  Wisconsin  appear  to  be  the  only  States  which  make 
a  definite  provision  on  this  point,  and  they  require  an  air  space  of  250 
cubic  feet  for  each  employee  between  the  hours  of  6  a.  m.  and  6  p.  m., 
and,  unless  by  written  consent  of  the  factory  inspector,  not  less  than 
400  cubic  feet  for  each  employee  between  the  hours  of  6  p.  m.  and  6 
a.  m.,  provided  such  room  is  lighted  by  electricity,  etc.  This  is  a  step 
in  the  right  direction,  but  it  would  be  extremely  desirable  to  place  the 
minimum  amount  of  cubic  air  space  at  400  feet  for  day  work  and  500 
feet  for  night  work,  unless  electricity  is  used,  in  which  case  a  uniform 
standard  of  400  feet  might  be  prescribed.  At  all  events  the  question 
of  sufficiency  ought  not  to  be  left  to  the  discretion  of  the  factory 
inspector.  Either  the  cubic  air  space  should  be  specified  or  the  carbonic 
acid  limited  to  12  volumes  per  10,000. 

VENTILATION. 

Ventilation,  which  means  the  removal  and  dispersion  of  bad  air  and 
the  introduction  of  fresh  air,  is  accomplished  either  by  natural  or  arti- 
ficial means.  Natural  ventilation  is  usually  sufficient  when  each 
occupant  has  1,000  feet  of  cubic  air  space,  the  walls  of  the  building  are 
porous  or  contain  numerous  crevices  near  the  doors  and  windows,  the 
difference  between  the  indoor  and  outdoor  temperature  is  considerable, 
and  the  winds  strike  the  walls  directly  or  pass  with  great  velocity  over 
chimney  flues  or  other  openings.  But  as  the  direction  and  force  of 
the  winds  and  the  other  factors  referred  to  can  not  be  controlled,  other 
means  should  be  provided  for  ventilation.  For  this  purpose,  open 
windows,  doors,  and  revolving  fans  answer  very  well  in  summer.  The 
objection  to  this  method  are  the  cold  drafts  in  winter.  In  rooms  heated 
with  direct  radiation  the  fresh  air  should  therefore  be  admitted  above 
the  heads  of  the  occupants,  either  by  fresh-air  register  inlets  in  the  walls 
or  by  the  insertion  of  louvered  or  swinging  windows,  thus  an  upward 
direction  being  given  to  the  air,  so  that  it  may  impinge  on  the  ceiling, 
mix  with  and  be  warmed  by  the  heated  air  in  this  situation,  falling 
gently  into  all  parts  of  the  room,  and  being  gradually  removed  by 
means  of  the  foul-air  outlets,  aided  by  exhaust  fans.     Another  simple 


76 

plan  is  to  bore  slanting  holes  in  the  bottom  rail  of  the  window  sash, 
or  to  employ  a  Pullman  or  Bury  ventilator,  or  to  insert  a  piece  of  board 
4  inches  wide. across  the  window  sill.  The  separation  of  the  sashes 
thus  caused  will  provide  for  indirect  fresh-air  inlets. 

Artificial  ventilation,  which  may  be  secured  by  providing  I,  Suitable 
inlets  and  outlets ;  2,  by  extraction  by  heat,  or  the  creation  of  a  decided 
difference  betwen  the  inner  and  outer  temperature ;  and,  3,  by  pro- 
pulsion and  aspiration.  Space  will  not  permit  to  enter  into  details 
except  to  say  that,  besides  the  contrivances  already  mentioned,  any  of 
the  ordinary  registers  in  which  the  air  passes  through  the  walls  by 
means  of  a  perforated  iron  plate  and  is  then  directed  upward  by  a 
valved  plate  with  side  checks  will  prove  of  service.  McKinnel's  venti- 
lator consists  of  two  cylinders,  one  inside  the  other  and  of  different 
lengths,  the  longer  tube,  projecting  above  and  below,  serves  to  conduct 
the  impure  air,  while  the  outer  cylinder,  having  a  larger  sectional  area 
serves  as  an  inlet.  The  outlet  is  protected  on  the  top  with  a  cowl,  and 
both  tubes  can  be  regulated  by  valves.  They  are  especially  useful  in 
the  ventilation  of  one-story  buildings  or  the  upper  story  of  any  build- 
ing. If  gas  is  used  as  an  illuminant,  the  burners  may  be  placed  imme- 
diately under  the  extracting  tube.  As  the  warm  air  escapes  through  the 
inner  tube  a  corresponding  volume  is  admitted  through  the  interspace 
between  the  two  cylinders. 

The  Ridge  ventilators  consist  of  openings  through  the  ceiling  and 
roof  with  louvered  sides  and  ends,  protected  with  a  small  roof,  the 
opening  of  the  air  shaft  in  the  ceiling  usually  being  provided  with  suit- 
able registers.  The  fresh  air  is  admitted  by  the  means  already  referred 
to,  or  by  registers  placed  behind  radiators.  If  the  building  is  heated 
by  stoves,  the  fresh  air  may  be  admitted  by  inlets  running  underneath 
the  floor  between  the  joists  and  discharging  through  a  register  near  the 
stove. 

Extraction  of  foul  air  by  heat  is  usually  accomplished  by  placing 
a  separate  flue  next  to  the  chimney  flue ;  the  latter,  if  in  use  for  firing 
purposes,  creates  an  upward  current.  If  this  is  not  sufficient  it  may  be 
promoted  by  gas  jets  or  a  steam  coil  placed  in  the  flue. 

The  propulsion  and  aspiration  system  is  especially  adapted  for  all 
large  buildings  and  factories,  and  consists  of  mechanical  devices  by 
which  the  fresh  air  is  forced  into  and  distributed  throughout  the  build- 
ing by  the  use  of  fans  or  air  propellers,  the  foul  or  objectionable  air 
being  removed  by  so-called  exhaust  fans.  A  number  of  States  have 
made  statutory  provisions  for  the  ventilation  of  workshops,  and  quite 
a  number,  including  California,  Connecticut,  Illinois,  Indiana,  Iowa, 
Maryland,  Massachusetts,  Ohio,  Oregon,  Pennsylvania,  Michigan,  Min- 


77 

nesota,  Mississippi,  New  Jersey,  New  York,  South  Dakota,  Washing- 
ton, and  Wisconsin,  require  mechanical  device  for  the  removal  of  in- 
jurious dust  or  ibises.     Of  these  States  several  lay  down  specific  rule-. 

concerning  the  construction  of  workbenches  and  hoods.     The  latter 

empty  into  air  shafts  connected  with  exhaust    fans,  and  tlm     extract  all 
dust  and  fumes  without  material  injury  from  draft-  to  the  Operal 
The  provisions  apply  especially  to  operations  in  which  emery  wh< 
belts  or  other  buffing  processes  are  employed.     The  laws  of  the   State 

of  Michigan,  acts  of  1899,  furnish  a  good  example  of  regulations  of  this 
character. 

ACTS  OF  1899. 

Act  No.  202. — Factories  and  workshops — Blowers  for  emery  wheels,  etc. 

Section  r.  All  persons,  companies  or  corporations,  operating  any  factory  or 
workshop,  where  wheels  or  emery  belts  of  any  description  are  in  general  use, 
either  leather,  leather  covered,  felt,  canvas  paper,  cotton  or  wheels  or  belts  rolled 
or  coated  with  emery  or  corundum,  or  cotton,  wheels  used  as  buffs,  shall  provide 
the  same  with  fans  or  blowers,  or  similar  apparatus,  when  ordered  by  the  com- 
missioner of  labor,  which  shall  be  placed  in  such  a  position  or  manner  as  to 
protest  [protect]  the  person  or  persons  using  the  same  from  the  particles  of  the 
dust  produced  and  caused  thereby,  and  to  carry  away  the  dust  arising  from,  or 
thrown  off  by  such  wheels,  or  belts,  while  in  operation,  directly  to  the  outside 
of  the  building  or  to  some  other  receptacle  placed  so  as  to  receive  and  confine 
such  dust,  and  the  same  shall  be  placed  in  such  factory  or  workshop  within 
three  months  after  this  act  shall  take  effect,  in  the  manner  and  according  to  the 
directions  and  specifications  as  herein,  in  this  act  set  forth :  Provided,  That 
grinding  machines  upon  which  water  is  used  at  the  point  of  grinding  contact 
shall  be  exempt  from  the  conditions  of  this  act:  And  provided  further,  That  this 
act  shall  not  apply  to  solid  emery  wheels  used  in  sawmills  or  planing  mills  or 
other  woodworking  establishments. 

Sec  2.  It  shall  be  the  duty  of  any  person,  company  or  corporation  operating 
any  such  factory  or  workshop  to  provide  or  construct  such  appliances,  apparatus, 
machinery  or  other  things  necessary  to  carry  out  the  purpose  of  this  act,  as  set 
forth  in  the  preceding  section,  as  follows :  Each  and  every  such  wheel  shall  be 
fitted  with  a  sheet  or  cast-iron  hood  or  hopper  of  such  form  and  so  applied  to 
such  wheel  or  wheels  that  the  dust  or  refuse  therefrom  will  fall  from  such  wheels 
or  will  be  thrown  in  such  hood  or  hopper  by  centrifugal  force  and  be  carried 
off  by  the  current  of  air  into  a  suction  pipe  attached  to  same  hood  or  hopper. 

Sec.  3.  Each  and  every  such  wheel  six  inches  or  less  in  diameter  shall  be 
provided  with  a  three-inch  suction  pipe ;  wheels  six  inches  to  twenty-four  inches 
in  diameter  with  four-inch  suction  pipe ;  wheels  from  twenty-four  inches  to 
thirty-six  inches  in  diameter  with  a  five-inch  suction  pipe:  and  all  wheels  larger 
in  diameter  than  those  stated  above  shall  be  provided  each  with  a  suction  pipe, 
not  less  than  six  inches  in  diameter.  The  suction  pipe  from  each  wheel,  so 
specified,  must  be  full  sized  to  the  main  trunk  suction  pipe,  and  the  said  main 
suction  pipe  to  which  smaller  pipes  are  attached  shall,  in  its  diameter  and 
capacity,  be  equal  to  the  combined  area  of  such  smaller  pipes  attached  to  the 
same ;  and  the  discharge  pipe  from  the  exhaust  fan.  connected  with  such  suction 
pipe  or  pipes,  shall  be  as  large  or  larger  than  the  suction  pipe. 


78 

Sec.  4.  It  shall  be  the  duty  of  any  person,  company  or  corporation  operating 
any  such  factory  or  workshop,  to  provide  the  necessary  fans  or  blowers  to  be 
connected  with  such  pipe  or  pipes,  as  above  set  forth,  which  shall  be  run  at  such 
a  rate  of  speed  as  will  produce  a  velocity  of  air  in  such  suction  or  discharge 
pipes  of  at  least  nine  thousand  feet  per  minute  or  an  equivalent  suction  or 
pressure  of  air  equal  to  raising  a  column  of  water  not  less  than  five  inches  high 
in  a  U-shaped  tube.  All  branch  pipes  must  enter  the  main  trunk  pipe  at  an 
angle  of  forty-five  degrees  or  less.  The  main  suction,  or  trunk  pipe,  shall  be 
below  the  polishing  or  buffing  wheels  and  as  close  to  the  same  as  possible  and 
to  be  either  upon  the  floor  or  beneath  the  floor  on  which  the  machines  are  placed 
to  which  such  wheels  are  attached.  All  bends,  turns  or  elbows  in  such  pipes 
must  be  made  with  easy  smooth  surfaces  having  a  radius  in  the  throat  of  not 
less  than  two  diameters  of  the  pipe  on  which  they  are  connected. 

Sec.  5.  It  shall  be  the  duty  of  any  factory  inspector,  sheriff,  constable  or 
prosecuting  attorney  of  any  county  in  this  State,  in  which  any  such  factory  or 
workshop  is  situated,  upon  receiving  notice  in  writing,  signed  by  any  person  or 
persons,  having  knowledge  of  such  facts,  that  such  factory  or  workshop,  is  not 
provided  with  such  appliances  as  herein  provided  for,  to  visit  any  such  factory 
or  workshop  and  inspect  the  same  and  for  such  purpose  they  are  hereby  author- 
ized to  enter  any  factory  or  workshop  in  this  State  during  working  hours,  and 
upon  ascertaining  the  facts  that  the  proprietors  or  managers  of  such  factory  or 
workshop  have  failed  to  comply  with  the  provisions  cf  this  act,  to  make  com- 
plaint of  the  same  in  writing  before  a  justice  of  the  peace,  or  police  magistrate 
having  jurisdiction,  who  shall  thereupon  issue  his  warrant  directed  to  the  owner, 
manager  or  director  in  such  factory  or  workshop,  who  shall  be  thereupon 
proceeded  against  for  the  violation  of  this  act  as  hereinafter  mentioned,  and 
it  is  made  the  duty  of  the  prosecuting  attorney  to  prosecute  all  cases  under 
this  act. 

TEMPERATURE. 

It  is  a  well-known  fact  that  the  welfare  and  capacity  for  work  of 
individuals  are  to  a  great  extent  influenced  by  the  surrounding  tem- 
perature. Reference  has  been  made  to  occupations  involving  exposure 
to  extremes  of  heat  and  cold,  dampness,  and  sudden  changes.  The 
human  organism  possesses  the  faculty  of  maintaining  a  uniform  temper- 
ature ;  i.  e.,  it  so  regulates  and  harmonizes  the  production  and  the  loss  of 
animal  heat  that  the  normal  temperature  of  the  blood,  98.2  Fahrenheit, 
is  not  materially  affected,  and  in  this  the  skin  doubtless  plays  the  most 
important  role.  Whenever  cold  acts  upon  the  skin  the  irritation  is 
primarily  exerted  upon  the  nerves,  which  transmit  it  to  the  central 
organs  of  the  nervous  system  (the  heat-regulating  center),  and  from 
there  it  is  reflected  to  the  nerves  of  the  cutaneous  vessels  and  muscular 
fibers,  which  promptly  contract,  and  in  consequence  of  a  diminished 
blood  supply  there  is  less  loss  of  heat.  If,  on  the  other  hand,  heat 
instead  of  cold  plays  upon  the  skin,  we  have  dilatation  instead  of  con- 
traction of  the  vessels,  with  an  increased  surface  blood  supply  and  cor- 
responding loss  of  heat  by  radiation  and  conduction.     At  the  same 


79 

time  the  perspiratory  glands  are  stimulated  to  greater  activity,  more 
sweat  is  excreted  and  evaporated,  and  still  more  heat  is  dissipated.  One 
of  the  bad  effects  of  profuse  perspiration  is  that  the  blood  is  deprived 
of  some  of  its  constituents.  The  blood  is  taken  away  too  long  from 
the  internal  organs ;  the  proper  distribution  of  the  blood  supply  is  inter- 
ferred  with,  and  in  consequence  the  tone  and  nutrition  of  the  stomach, 
lungs,  heart,  and  other  internal  organs  is  lowered.  We  lose  our 
appetite  and  suffer  from  indigestion ;  the  red  corpuscles  are  decreased ; 
we  experience  languor  and  general  enervation,  and  the  system  in  con- 
sequence is  rendered  more  susceptible  to  disease. 

While  the  human  organism  endeavors  to  adapt  itself  to  extremes  of 
heat  and  cold,  the  faculty  of  the  body  to  maintain  the  equilibrium  is 
by  no  means  unlimited,  and  the  heat-regulating  center  is  liable  to  fail 
or  become  paralyzed  if  imposed  upon  too  long  or  too  frequently.  This 
is  especially  the  case  during  sudden  changes  of  temperature.  It  is 
the  abruptness  which  offends  the  peripheral  nerves,  and  the  greater 
the  abruptness  the  more  intensive  will  be  the  irritation  which  is  trans- 
mitted by  reflex  action  to  other  parts  of  the  body,  usually  the  weakest 
parts,  and  may  result  in  driving  the  blood  to  internal  organs,  causing 
congestions  and  other  mischief.  Then  again  a  cold  draft  playing  on 
the  cheek  may  cause  neuralgia,  paralysis,  sore  throat,  bronchitis,  or 
pneumonia,  showing  that  cold  applied  locally  may  excite  disease  in  the 
neighborhood  of  its  application  or  in  distant  organs,  and  finally  it  may 
produce  disease  by  checking  the  secretions  of  the  skin. 

The  most  agreeable  temperature  for  average  healthy  adults  properly 
clothed  and  performing  light  work  is  between  65  and  70  degrees  Fah- 
renheit, and  every  effort  should  be  made  to  avoid  extremes  of  heat  and 
cold.  Much  may  be  done  to  reduce  the  temperature  of  workshops  by 
forced  ventilation  and  a  supply  of  cool,  fresh  air.  The  windows  should 
be  kept  open  during  the  summer  nights,  so  that  the  rooms  may  be  thor- 
oughly flushed  with  fresh  and  cool  air. 

HUMIDITY  OF  THE  AIR. 

The  atmosphere  always  contains  a  certain  amount  of  water  in  the 
state  of  vapor,  which  varies  from  30  per  cent  to  complete  saturation, 
or,  according  to  temperature,  from  1  to  12  grains  in  a  cubic  foot  of  air. 
The  degree  of  atmospheric  humidity  is  of  special  hygienic  importance, 
as  it  influences  to  a  great  extent  the  cutaneous  and  pulmonary  exha- 
lation of  vapor  and  in  consequence  also  affects  the  animal  tempera- 
ture. The  average  daily  amount  of  water  eliminated  by  the  skin  is  2y2 
pounds,  and  about  10  ounces  by  the  lungs.  It  is  evident  that  when  the 
air  is  damp  it  lessens  evaporation,  as  it  possesses  little  drying  power. 


8o 

and  the  water  from  the  skin  and  lungs  is  with  difficulty  evaporated. 
The  evaporation  of  perspiration,  by  which  much  heat  is  rendered  latent, 
is  one  of  the  chief  sources  of  cooling  of  the  body.  Consequently  when 
the  air  is  hot  and  moist  the  humidity  tends  to  increase  the  effects  of  the 
heat,  the  blood  is  with  difficulty  kept  at  its  proper  temperature,  and  all 
the  disagreeable  effects  of  a  high  temperature  are  intensified.  This 
condition  may  be  so  aggravated  that  the  temperature  of  the  body 
exceeds  the  normal  degree  and  causes  our  cases  of  so-called  heat  stroke 
or  heat  exhaustion,  which  occurs  especially  on  hot,  sultry  days. 

A  damp,  cold,  or  chilly  air  also  produces  mischief,  as  it  abstracts 
an  undue  amount  of  animal  heat,  lowers  the  general  vitality  of  the 
system,  and  favors  the  development  of  diseases  of  the  respiratory 
passages,  neuralgic  and  rheumatic  affections,  and  aggravates  the  sever- 
ity of  such  attacks.  We  may  conclude,  therefore,  that  excessive 
humidity  tends  to  intensify  the  effects  of  both  heat  and  cold.  On  the 
other  hand,  excessive  dryness  of  the  air  is  also  harmful ;  it  increases 
evaporation,  the  skin  becomes  dry  and  chapped,  and  the  mucous  mem- 
branes of  the  mouth,  eyes,  and  respiratory  passages  are  irritated,  caus- 
ing so-called  catarrhal  conditions.  For  all  these  reasons  an  average 
relative  humidity  between  65  and  75  per  cent  has  been  found  most 
healthful,  and  efforts  should  be  made  to  maintain  such  a  standard  when- 
ever practicable.  Apart  from  methods  calculated  to  accomplish  these 
results,  reliable  thermometers  and  hygrometers  are  required  to  secure 
efficient  control.  State  legislators  would  do  well,  instead  of  making  a 
general  provision  for  sufficient  heat,  moisture,  etc.,  to  prescribe  a  stand- 
ard, at  least  in  industries  where  such  standards  are  practicable  and  can 
be  reasonably  enforced. 

LIGHTING. 

The  natural  light  in  workshops  should  be  sufficient  so  that  the 
eyes  need  not  to  be  strained  even  on  cloudy  days.  When  the  light  is 
defective  the  objects  have  to  be  brought  too  near.  The  eyes  in  conse- 
quence converge,  and  the  muscular  strain  thus  induced  causes  a  gradual 
elongation  of  the  anterior-posterior  axis  of  the  eyeball,  and  nearsight- 
edness results.  In  addition,  it  is  believed  by  specialists  that  80  to  90 
per  cent  of  the  headaches  are  caused  by  eye  strain.  It  has  been  found 
by  Putzeys1  that  the  natural  lighting  in  temperate  climates  will 
usually  come  up  to  hygienic  requirements  when  the  area  of  windows, 
exclusive  of  sash  frames,  equals  one-sixth  of  the  floor  space.  In  order 
that  the  light  may  penetrate  the  deeper  portions  of  the  room,  the  win- 
dows should  reach  almost  to  the  ceiling  and  the  glass  should  be  either 

'Cited  by  Munson  Military  Hygiene,  1901,  p.  521. 


8i 

pure  white  ribbed  or  prismatic  and  kept  clean.  Wisconsin  is  apparently 
the  only  State  which  has  undertaken  to  legislate  Specifically  upon  this 
point,  as  section  3  of  chapter  79,  acts  of  [899,  provides:  "Every  win- 
dow shall  have  not  less  than  12  square  feet  in  superficial  area,  and  the 
entire  area  of  window  surface  shall  not  be  less  than  12  per  cent  of  the 
floor  space  of  such  room." 

The  difficulty  of  securing  a  sufficient  amount  of  daylight  in  build- 
ings located  on  narrow  streets  surrounded  by  tall  buildings  has  been 
partly  overcome  by  glass  building  blocks  8  by  6  by  2^4  inches,  with 
an  air  chamber  in  the  center,  used  instead  of  brick  or  stone,  in  connec- 
tion with  steel-frame  construction,  but  more  particularly  by  the  intro- 
duction of  prismatic  glass,  which  refracts  and  diffuses  the  light. 

ARTIFICIAL  LIGHT. 

No  matter  how  obtained,  artificial  light  differs  from  daylight  in 
this,  that  it  does  not  furnish  a  pure  white  light,  the  prevailing  rays 
being  red,  yellow,  or  violet.  Whatever  difference  of  opinion  there  may 
be  as  to  the  color  best  suited  to  our  eyes,  we  know  that  our  vision  is 
most  perfect  under  the  influence  of  a  white  light,  and  this  ought  to  be  a 
good  criterion.  One  of  the  disadvantages  of  all  low-power  illuminants 
is  that  the  light  is  never  as  bright  as  daylight,  involving,  therefore, 
closer  application  of  the  eyes  and  consequent  strain  of  the  muscles  of 
the  eyeball.  These  remarks  are  hardly  applicable  to  the  electric  arc 
light  and  the  Welsbach  gas-burner,  the  rays  of  which,  like  the  direct 
solar  rays,  may  indeed  be  so  glaring  as  to  cause  undue  irritation  of  the 
retina. 

Another  harmful  effect  of  artificial  illumination  is  the  unsteady  or 
flickering  character,  especially  seen  in  the  electric  arc  light,  and  which 
on  account  of  the  abrupt  changes  is  likely  to  irritate  the  retina.  Another 
disadvantage  is  that  the  ordinary  illuminants,  except  the  electric  light, 
tend  to  vitiate  the  air  by  the  products  of  combustion,  and  also  affect 
the  temperature  and  humidity  of  the  air  by  the  heat  evolved. 

The  requirements  of  a  hygienic  light  are  that  it  should  be  as  near 
as  possible  the  color  of  the  sunlight,  sufficiently  ample  but  not  too 
glaring;  it  should  be  steady,  and  instead  of  deteriorating  the  air  it 
should  as  far  as  practicable  be  utilized  to  promote  ventilation ;  nor 
should  the  heat  evolved  be  sufficiently  intense  to  be  a  source  of  dis- 
comfort to  the  inmates  in  warm  weather.  The  most  common  methods 
of  lighting  now  employed  are  the  electric  incandescent  lamps,  arc  lights, 
mercury-vapor  lights  and  electric  bulbs,  gaslight,  and  kerosene  lamps. 
Of  these,  the  electric  lights,  especially  the  mercury-vapor  lights,  are 
superior  to  gas  or  other  illuminants  because  there  is  little  or  no  danger 


82 

from  fire,  there  are  no  products  of  combustion,  hence  no  pollution  of 
the  air,  nor  are  the  temperature  and  humidity  of  the  room  affected  to 
any  perceptible  extent.  These  advantages  over  gas  or  kerosene  are  of 
special  importance  to  the  inmates  of  the  buildings  where  the  question 
of  fresh  air  and  temperature  plays  an  important  role ;  hence  many 
industrial  plants  find  it  profitable  to  install  the  very  best  type  of  electric 
lighting,  and  thereby  save  time  and  money  by  the  prevention  of  sickness 
and  accidents  among  their  employees.  Next  to  the  electric  light,  gas, 
especially  in  connection  with  a  Welsbach  or  Siemen's  burner,  or  the 
acetylene  gas,  offers  the  next  best  choice.  In  the  absence  of  either  elec- 
tric or  gas  light,  kerosene  with  a  high  flashing  point  should  be  preferred 
over  other  illuminants.  In  all  such  instances  suitable  outlets  for  the 
products  of  combustion  should  be  provided. 

White,  clean  ceilings  and  walls  will  be  of  great  service  not  only  in 
solving  the  question  of  light,  but  also  in  general  sanitation,  and  a 
number  of  States,  notably  Indiana,  Kentucky,  Missouri,  New  Jersey, 
and  New  York,  require  the  walls  to  be  limewashed  or  painted. 

The  sufficiency  of  artificial  lighting  may  be  approximately  deter- 
mined by  observation,  and  quite  accurately  by  the  employment  of 
Bunsen's  method  and  his  photometer.  In  this  country  and  England, 
according  to  Munson,  "the  unit  adopted  for  the  measurement  and  com- 
parison of  lights  is  a  No.  6  sperm  candle  burning  8  grams  per  hour 
and  giving  out  a  light  known  as  'i  candlepower.'  "  Such  a  candle  con- 
tains on  analysis  carbon  8o  per  cent,  hydrogen  13  per  cent,  oxygen  6 
per  cent,  and  in  combustion  yields  equal  volumes  of  carbonic  acid  and 
watery  vapor  to  the  air,  namely,  0.41  cubic  foot. 

PREVENTION  OF  ACCIDENTS. 

About  22  States  have  taken  steps  to  reduce  accidents  to  a  mini- 
mum. For  this  purpose  they  have  enacted  laws  concerning  employers' 
liability  if  they  fail  to  provide  safety  devices  for  the  movable  and  dan- 
gerous parts  of  machinery.  Apart  from  proper  screening,  belting,  etc., 
the  use  of  respirators,  wire  masks,  and  goggles  are  absolutely  essential 
for  the  prevention  of  accidents  or  injuries  in  many  employments.  At 
least  27  States  require  some  form  of  protection  in  case  of  fire,  by  means 
of  fire  escapes  and  doors  swinging  outwardly,  while  a  respectable  num- 
ber also  insist  upon  inspection  and  registration  of  steam  boilers. 

A  careful  inspection  of  steam  boilers  and  examination  of  engineers 
have  materially  lessened  the  dangers  from  boiler  explosions,  so  that 
in  England  there  is  only  about  1  explosion  in  6,200  registered  boilers. 

It  has  been  suggested  that  employees  who  come  in  contact  with 


83 

moving  machinery  should  provide  themselves  with  suitahle  clothing, 
so  fitted  and  arranged  as  to  reduce  the  dangers  to  a  minimum.  There 
is  an  endless  variety  of  suitable  patterns  in  the  mark' t,  of  which  the 
snug-fitting  duck  union  suits  properly  buttoned  and  adjusted  are  the 
best.  Asbestos  clothing  has  been  recommended  for  firemen  and  furnace 
operators ;  but  as  it  is  rather  heavy,  light  leather  suits  or  aprons  are 
preferable,  while  even  ordinary  clothing  may  be  rendered  practically 
noninflammable  by  chemical  treatment. 

MISCELLANEOUS  SANITARY  PROVISIONS. 

A  number  of  States  have  enacted  laws  concerning  general  cleanli- 
ness of  factories  and  workshops.  Most  of  the  factory  laws  make  pro- 
visions for  the  necessary  sanitary  conveniences,  such  as  privies,  water- 
closets,  and  urinals,  and  where  men  and  women  are  employed  separate 
dressing  rooms  and  water-closets  are  called  for.  Some  of  the  States, 
like  Wisconsin,  for  example,  specify  "that  when  the  number  employed 
is  more  than  25  of  either  sex  there  shall  be  provided  an  additional 
water-closet  for  such  sex  up  to  the  number  of  50  persons,  and  above 
that  number  in  the  same  ratio."  The  author  believes  that  there  should 
be  at  least  one  water-closet  or  privy  for  every  twenty  employees. 

A  large  number  of  States  make  seats  for  female  employees,  wash 
rooms,  and  dressing  rooms  obligatory,  and  not  a  few  insist  upon  sepa- 
rate provisions  for  the  sexes.  The  importance  of  personal  cleanliness 
has  been  pointed  out.  In  certain  occupations  the  washing  of  the  hands 
before  eating  is  important,  and  in  occupations  involving  exposure  to 
poisonous  dust  or  agents  the  employment  of  a  general  bath  should  be 
encouraged  by  insisting  upon  the  introduction  of  suitable  shower  baths. 

A  few  States,  notably  Massachusetts"  and  Rhode  Island,  make  pro- 
visions for  "fresh  drinking  water  of  good  quality."  The  former  also 
regulates  the  spitting  habit  by  insisting  upon  suitable  spittoons.  These 
and  other  questions,  like  clothes  lockers  and  lunch  rooms,  and  the  time 
allowed  for  the  noonday  meals,  which  is  already  regulated  in  a  number 
of  States,  should  receive  universal  attention.  Much  industrial  legisla- 
tion has  been  enacted  by  State  legislatures  during  the  past  ten  years. 
Commendable  progress  has  been  made  in  the  provision  of  ventilation, 
heating,  lighting,  removal  of  dust,  and  general  sanitation  of  workshops. 
The  need  for  additional  improvement  is  shown  by  the  Massachusetts 
Board  of  Health's  survey  of  the  work  in  that  State,  which  has  generally 
been  in  the  lead  in  factory  laws. 

The  Report  of  the  State  Board  of  Health,  on  page  4.  reads : 

"In  many  [industries]  the  conditions  were  found  to  be  satisfactory. 
In  the  emery  and  corundum,  sandpaper,  and  certain  other  industries 


84 

more  attention  should  be  given  to  keeping  the  dust  away  from  the  mouth 
and  nostrils  of  the  workmen.  In  the  rag  dusting,  sorting,  and  cutting 
rooms  of  some  paper  mills  very  objectionable  amounts  of  dust  were 
found,  with  some  pale  and  sickly  appearing  operatives ;  but  there  are 
mills  using  the  same  kind  of  stock  where  the  dust  is  kept  away  from 
the  employees  in  a  satisfactory  manner,  and  much  improvement  is  prac- 
ticable in  the  former  class." 

The  same  remarks  are  applicable  to  the  textile  industries,  and  the 
hope  is  expressed  that  the  unsatisfactory  conditions  found  in  the  mi- 
nority of  establishments  will  be  raised  to  those  which  are  now  found  to 
be  good. 

Reference  has  already  been  made  in  these  pages  to  the  conditions 
found  in  machine  shops,  the  cutlery  and  tool  industry,  cigar,  rubber, 
boot  and  shoe,  and  other  industries  examined.  In  the  boot  and  shoe 
industry  comment  is  made  upon  "four  conditions  which  can  be  and 
ought  to  be  remedied."  These  are:  poor  ventilation,  inadequate  re- 
moval of  dust  from  machines,  the  conditions  of  water-closets,  and  spit 
upon  the  floors.  In  the  majority  of  factories  visited  the  ventilation 
was  found  to  be  poor,  and  in  many  of  them  distinctly  bad.  Of  the 
rooms  not  especially  dusty,  102  were  badly  ventilated  and  26  were  over- 
crowded. *  *  *  Of  84  of  the  many  dusty  rooms  reported,  40  were  also 
overcrowded,  35  were  dark,  21  were  overheated,  and  18  were  over- 
crowded, dark,  and  overheated. 

"In  more  than  one-third  of  the  factories  visited  the  conditions  of 
water-closets  were  not  commendable ;  most  of  them  were  dark  and  dirty 
to  very  dirty.  In  50  establishments  no  spitting  was  noticed,  in  173 
there  was  some,  in  115  considerable,  and  in  35  much." 

"In  some  establishments  lunch  rooms  are  provided,  where  employ- 
ees may  eat  the  luncheon  they  have  brought  or  may  buy  one ;  in  much 
the  larger  number  the  employees  eat  in  the  workrooms.  *  *  *  In  85 
factories,  or  23  per  cent  of  those  visited,  a  considerable  proportion  of 
the  employees  are  noticeably  pale  and  unhealthy." 

In  discussing  the  following  provision  in  the  Massachusetts  laws, 
"All  factories  shall  be  kept  clean,"  the  State  board  of  health  very  prop- 
erly points  out  that  "what  is  clean  in  an  ax-grinding  factory  would  not 
be  clean  in  a  silk  mill ;  but  the  law  makes  no  distinction,  and  the  judg- 
ment of  the  officer  can  not  be  received  as  law."  The  board  considers 
it  impossible  to  specify  in  any  law  a  standard  of  cleanliness  applicable 
to  all  industries,  and  advises  "that  the  officer  should  be  authorized  to 
hold  all  factories  in  any  industry  up  to  the  standard  of  cleanliness  which 
he  finds  maintained  in  the  factories  in  the  same  industry  and  using  the 
same  grade  of  stock  which  are  the  cleanest."     The  same  method  is  rec- 


85 

ommended  for  the  enforcement  of  standards  in  other  directions,  sub' 
jeet  to  an  appeal  to  the  State  hoard  of  health. 

LODGING  HOUSES  AND  SLEEPING  QUAR1  ERS. 

It  not  infrequently  happens  that  large  industrial  plant1-  and  con- 
tractors provide  hoard  and  lodging  for  their  unmarried  employees. 
Again,  in  a  number  of  the  smaller  industries  the  employees  not  infre- 
quently hoard  with  the  family  and  are  obliged  to  sleep  in  objectionable 
rooms.  All  such  provisions  should  come  up  to  a  reasonable  standard 
a<=  regards  salubrity,  air  space,  light,  heat,  and  ventilation,  and  sepa- 
rate provisions  should  be  required  for  males  and  females  and  youthful 
employees.  Lodging  houses  should  come  up  to  a  certain  standard,  and 
wash  and  bath  rooms  and  suitable  toilet  facilities  should  be  provided. 
Special  attention  should  be  paid  to  general  cleanliness  within  and  with- 
out quarters  for  working  parties,  and  to  the  character  and  preparation 
of  food. 

PERMANENT  EXPOSITIONS   DEVOTED  TO   INDUSTRIAL 
AND  SOCIAL  BETTERMENT   OF  WAGE-EARNERS. 

It  will  require  time  and  patience  to  bring  employers  and  workers  to 
a  full  realization  of  the  dangers  incident  to  the  various  occupations  and 
to  a  thorough  appreciation  of  the  methods  which  have  been  proposed 
in  the  way  of  factory  sanitation,  safety  devices,  etc.  Good  results 
abroad  have  been  accomplished  by  a  permanent  exposition  devoted  to 
social  and  industrial  betterment  for  wage-earners.  Such  an  exposi- 
tion was  provided  for  by  the  German  Parliament  a  few  years  ago, 
and  a  similar  effort  is  now  being  made  in  the  city  of  New  York.  The 
German  exposition  occupies  a  building  specially  erected  for  the  purpose 
at  Charlottenburg,  a  suburb  of  Berlin,  and  here  every  safety  appliance 
which  inventive  genius  has  devised  can  be  seen  in  practical  operation. 
The  different  labor  unions  appear  to  profit  immensely  by  the  special  lec- 
tures and  demonstrations  which  are  given  on  Sundays  or,  upon  request, 
at  any  convenient  time,  by  men  formerly  employed  in  "dangerous  occu- 
pations." Apart  from  safety  devices  for  machinery  and  appliances  for 
removal  of  dust  and  injurious  gases,  all  improved  methods  calculated  to 
diminish  danger,  as,  for  example,  in  the  manufacture  of  white  lead,  etc., 
are  illustrated  by  models  and  descriptive  text,  printed  leaflets  being  dis- 
tributed free  of  charge.  Here,  too,  may  be  seen  the  best  and  most  re- 
cent types  of  respirators,  wire  masks,  goggles,  illuminating  appliances. 
and  safety  working  suits.  Inventors  and  designers  esteem  it  a  great 
honor  to  have  their  products  admitted  for  exposition.     Only  meritorious 


86 

objects  are  displayed,  and  they  are  replaced  by  the  newer  and  more 
satisfactory  types.  One  of  the  most  interesting  collections  consists  of  a 
series  of  bottles  containing  diffierent  varieties  of  dust,  a  series  of  photo- 
graphs showing  the  microscopical  character  of  this  dust,  and,  last,  but 
not  least,  anatomical  specimens  and  microscopical  slides  showing  the 
effects  of  dust  upon  the  air  passages  and  lungs  of  the  human  subject. 
Models,  plans,  and  photographs  of  tenements  and  model  homes  for 
wage-earners,  exterior  and  interior  decorations,  literature  and  charts 
concerning  industrial  betterment,  all  find  a  prominent  place  in  the 
exhibit.  The  display  of  food  stuffs,  their  nutritive  and  economic  value, 
together  with  instructive  leaflets,  form  part  of  this  interesting  exposi- 
tion. A  popular  pamphlet  seen  at  the  exposition  in  September,  1907, 
was  compiled  by  Professor  Kalle  and  Doctor  Schellenberg,  entitled 
"How  to  keep  well  and  capacitated  for  work,"  which  is  sold  by  the 
Society  for  Popular  Education  at  25^  cents  a  copy,  over  470,000  so 
far  having  been  sold. 

WHAT  THE  FEDERAL  GOVERNMENT  MAY  DO  FOR  THE 

PROMOTION  OF  THE  WELFARE  OF  ITS 

EMPLOYEES,  ETC. 

Much  excellent  work  has  been  and  is  being  done  by  the  United 
States  Bureau  of  Labor  in  the  collection  and  publication  of  facts  con- 
cerning every  phase  of  industrial  and  social  betterment.  These  bul- 
letins are  issued  bi-monthly,  and  if  carefully  read  can  not  fail  to  exert  a 
tremendous  educational  influence  upon  those  for  whom  they  are  pri- 
marily intended,  viz.,  the  wage-earners  and  employers.  But  while 
much  has  been  achieved  more  remains  to  be  accomplished.  It  seems 
to  the  writer  that  apart  from  establishing,  in  connection  with  the  Na- 
tional Museum,  a  permanent  exposition  relating  to  industrial  and  social 
betterments  of  wage-earners,  it  is  clearly  the  duty  of  the  Federal  Gov- 
ernment to  establish  and  adopt  a  standard  of  industrial  hygiene  for  all 
the  Government  workshops. 

President  Roosevelt  in  a  message  to  Congress,  December,  1907,  has 
said,  "the  National  Government  should  be  a  model  employer.  It  should 
demand  the  highest  quality  of  service  from  each  of  its  employees  and  it 
should  care  for  all  of  them  properly  in  return.  Congress  should  adopt 
legislation  providing  limited  but  definite  compensation  for  accidents  to 
all  workmen  within  the  scope  of  the  Federal  power,  including  employees 
of  navy  yards  and  arsenals." 

We  regret  to  say,  that  with  the  possible  exception  of  the  extraor- 
dinary efforts  and  special  precautions  exercised  to  protect  the  health  and 
general  welfare  of  the  employees  in  the  operations  connected  with  the 


87 

construction  of  the  canal  on  the  Isthmus  of  Panama,  the  sanitation  of 
offices  and  workshops  in  this  country  proper,  for  Governmeni  emplo 
is  not  even  on  a  par  with  sonic  of  the  be  I  private  indu  trial  concerns. 
There  can  be  no  question  that  model  Government  workshop  .  and  efforts 
for  the  promotion  of  the  general  welfare  of  the  empl  uld  prove 

a  salutary  precept  and  example.  The  General  Government  is  not  in  a 
position  to  legislate  for  the  States,  but  it  can  at  least  enact  a  mode] 
labor  and  factory  law  for  the  District  of  Columbia,  and  all  of  the 
workshops  connected  with  the  Army  and  Navy  arsenals,  gun-factories, 
powder  depots,  clothing  depots  and  the  immense  army  of  labor  em- 
ployed on  the  Isthmus  of  Panama. 

Apart  from  strictly  sanitary  measures  for  the  promotion  and  pre- 
servation of  health,  the  Government,  as  a  model  employer,  should  pro- 
vide some  adequate  relief  in  case  of  sickness,  accidents,  or  disability 
from  disease  or  injuries  contracted  in  the  line  of  duty.  As  it  is  now, 
the  Government  merely  grants  one  month's  sick  leave  to  officials  and 
office  employees,  none  to  workmen  employed  in  Government  shops,  and 
in  case  of  accidents  the  employee  or  his  dependents  have  no  remedy  ex- 
cept recourse  to  the  courts  of  law. 

While  it  is  true  that  Government  employees  in  many  instances  have 
banded  together  for  the  purpose  of  establishing  sick  benefit  and  relief 
associations,  such  organizations  lack  official  control  and  do  not  always 
embody  the  most  advanced  principles  of  social  and  political  economy. 

GERMAN  WORKINGMEN'S  INSURANCE  SYSTEM. 

Industrial  Insurance. — For  reasons  briefly  stated,  the  Federal  Gov- 
ernment would  do  a  wise  act,  by  creating  the  so-called  industrial  insur- 
ance system,  for  the  sick,  for  accidents,  disability  and  old  age,  for  its 
own  employees  and  others  in  the  District  of  Columbia,  and  thus  initiating 
a  system  which  has  proved  to  be  a  veritable  blessing  in  many  of  the 
European  countries.  Any  one  who  desires  to  become  familiar  with  the 
"German  workingmen's  insurance"  should  not  fail  to  read  a  digest  in 
the  Bulletin  of  the  Bureau  of  Labor  No.  53,  July,  1904,  page  941,  and 
Professor  Henderson's  "Summary  of  European  Laws  on  Industrial  In- 
surance."    (Charities,  December  7,  1907,  page  1191.V 

Under  the  operation  of  the  German  law,  enacted  in  1883.  all  work- 
men employed  in  commerce,  industry  and  the  handicraft  trades,  and 
whose  wage  is  less  than  2.000  marks  (about  $480 >  must  be  insured. 
By  special  regulations  this  requirement  may  be  extended  to  agricultural 
and  household  employees.     To  secure  the  enrollment  of  individuals  "for 

JThe  writer  is  indebted  to  these  sources  for  much  of  the  information  on 
this  subject  and  gratefully  acknowledge  this  indebtedness. 


88 

sick  benefits,"  the  employers  in  the  industries  subject  to  the  law  are  re- 
quired to  send  to  the  proper  insurance  fund  the  names  of  each  person 
who  enters  or  leaves  their  service. 

The  income  of  the  sick  funds  is  derived  from  the  dues  of  members — 
the  amount  is  fixed  by  each  local  association,  but  cannot  exceed  6  per 
cent  of  the  members'  wages.  The  employee  pays  two-thirds  of  the 
dues  and  the  employer  one-third.  The  employee's  share  is  deducted 
from  his  wages  and  paid  direct  to  the  insurance  fund  by  the  employer, 
when  he  remits  his  own  share. 

The  benefits  offered  by  the  sick  funds  vary  in  amount,  but  all  of 
them  are  required  to  provide  the  following  as  a  minimum:  I,  Free 
medicine,  attendance  and  treatment ;  2,  In  case  the  sickness  causes  ina- 
bility to  work,  the  fund  pays  a  sick  benefit  equal  to  one-half  the  wage 
rate  which  was  used  in  calculating  the  member's  dues.  This  benefit 
begins  the  third  day  after  the  disability  sets  in,  and  continues  for  26 
weeks.  Instead  of  receiving  medical  treatment  at  home  a  member  is 
entitled  to  treatment  at  a  hospital,  in  which  case  an  amount  not  exceed- 
ing one-half  of  his  daily  wage  is  paid  to  his  dependents.  Female  mem- 
bers receive  similar  benefits  for  a  period  of  six  weeks  following  con- 
finement. 3,  In  case  of  death,  a  funeral  benefit  equal  to  twenty  times 
the  amount  of  his  daily  wage  is  paid  to  the  heirs  of  a  member. 

In  1904  there  were  22,912  local  sick  and  miners'  provident  associa- 
tions in  the  German  Empire  with  11,400,000  members,  practically  one- 
fifth  of  the  population.  The  disbursements  amounted  to  237,107,000 
marks  (about  $56,470,000).  Of  this  amount  106,000,000  marks  (about 
$25,238,000)  was  paid  for  sick  benefits  and  the  remainder  for  medical 
and  hospital  treatment,  convalescence  and  funeral  benefits. 

Accident  Insurance. — Under  the  provisions  of  the  laws  of  1884,  1887 
and  1900  all  workingmen  and  technical  experts  engaged  in  industry, 
agriculture,  forestry,  transportation  and  coast  fisheries  earning  less  than 
3,000  marks  (or  about  $715.00)  per  annum  are  required  to  be  insured 
against  accident.  By  special  enactment  it  may  be  extended  to  foremen 
and  petty  employers  with  more  than  3,000  marks  income.  This  form 
of  insurance  is  administered  by  associations  of  employers  known  as 
"mutual  trades  associations,"  subject  to  Federal  supervision.  In  1904 
there  were  114  associations,  including  5,300,000  establishments  and 
17,500,000  workmen.  The  workingman's  share  of  the  expense  of  the 
accident  insurance  consists  of  the  benefits  paid  out  of  the  sick  insurance 
fund  to  the  injured  person  during  the  first  thirteen  weeks  of  disability. 
The  share  of  the  employer  is  determined  from  the  amount  of  his  pay 
roll  and  the  danger  rate  of  occupation.  Beginning  with  the  fourteenth 
week  the  trades  association  provides:  I,  Free  medical  treatment;  2,  A 


8g 

pension  during  the  continuation  of  the  disability,  whether  the  disability 
is  partial  or  complete.  In  case  of  complete  disability  the  pension  is 
equal  to  two-thirds  of  the  earnings  of  the  injured  per  on;  in  case  of 

partial  disability  the  insured  receives  a  fraction  of  the  above  pen 

proportioned  to  the  degree  of  disability. 

In  case  of  a  fatal  accident,  the  law  provides  for:  I,  A  funeral  benefit 
of  not  less  than  $12.00;  2,  A  pension  to  the  dependent  of  the  deceased, 
including  parents,  beginning  with  the  day  of  death.  The  widow  and 
each  child  up  to  the  age  of  15  receives  20  per  cent  of  the  earnings  of  the 
deceased,  though  the  sum  of  these  pensions  may  not  exceed  60  per  cent 
of  such  earnings. 

Premiums  paid  in  1904  were  $35,592,000.00;  disbursements,  $30,- 
552,000;  viz.,  to  758,392  injured  members,  to  65,503  widows,  97,246 
children,  and  to  3,647  parents  of  those  killed. 

Invalid  and  old  age  pensions  were  made  compulsory  under  the  Ger- 
man law  of  1889  (revised  in  1899)  for  all  wage-earners  with  an  income 
of  less  than  $480.00  per  annum ;  the  provisions  may  also  be  extended  to 
include  petty  employers  and  persons  in  household  industry.  The  in- 
valid pension  is  paid  without  regard  to  age  to  those  persons  whose  earn- 
ing capacity  has  been  permanently  reduced  to  less  than  one-third.  The 
pension  is  also  paid  to  those  who  have  been  in  a  state  of  disability  for  26 
weeks  and  continues  as  long  as  the  disability  lasts.  To  be  eligible  for 
this  pension,  the  insured  person  must  have  been  a  member  of  the  "in- 
surance institute"  for  200  weeks,  during  which  time  not  less  than  100 
payments  of  weekly  dues  must  have  been  made.  If  the  disability  has 
been  incurred  purposely  the  right  to  a  pension  ceases  and  the  offender 
is  liable  to  criminal  prosecution. 

In  addition  to  the  pension  from  the  "insurance  institutes"  the  Em- 
pire grants  a  stipend  of  50  marks  (about  $12.00)  per  annum  to  invalids, 
as  well  as  persons  over  70  years  of  age. 

Members  are  divided  into  five  classes  on  the  basis  of  wages  received. 
Each  class  pays  a  different  rate  of  dues  and  receives  benefits  in  propor- 
tion. The  lowest  invalidity  pension  granted  is  $27.70,  the  highest  is 
$107.10  per  annum.  The  dues  range  from  3  1-3  cents  per  week,  accord- 
ing to  the  wage-class  in  which  the  member  is  enrolled.  One-half  of  the 
amount  is  paid  by  the  employer  and  one-half  by  the  employee. 

The  old  age  pension  is  paid  without  regard  to  earning  capacity  when 
the  seventieth  year  of  age  is  completed.  Members  must  have  paid  dues 
for  1200  weeks  before  they  become  eligible  for  such  a  pension.  In  1904 
there  were  40  invalid  pension  organizations,  with  13.8  million  insured 
members.  Premiums  paid  in  $36,960.000 ;  disbursements.  $35,520,- 
000.  The  average  invalid  pension  is  $37.20.  and  the  old  age  pension 
$37.68,  varying  in  amount  with  the  wage-class. 


90 

The  financial  soundness  of  the  system  is  secured  by  making  the  em- 
ployers, the  guilds  and  parishes  eventually  responsible  for  any  deficit  in 
the  various  sick  insurance  organizations.  The  national,  State  and  local 
governments  guarantee  the  payment  of  claims  against  the  accident  and 
invalidity  insurance  organizations. 

Synopsis  of  practical  results.  The  financial  status  of  the  working- 
men  has  been  improved  at  least  to  the  extent  of  the  benefits  received 
from  the  amounts  contributed  by  the  employers  and  the  government. 
Experience  has  shown  that  employers  have  not  deducted  their  share  of 
the  dues  from  wages. 

The  hygienic  conditions  of  the  workingmen  have  been  improved, 
both  on  account  of  the  safeguards  which  the  accident  insurance  organi- 
zations require  employers  to  use  and  because  of  the  special  efforts  made 
by  the  "sick  funds"  to  reduce  the  sick  rate  among  the  members  to  a 
minimum.  The  general  knowledge  in  regard  to  the  preservation  and 
promotion  of  health,  which  the  "sick  fund  organizations"  have  dissem- 
inated by  means  of  circulars,  monographs,  popular  lectures,  etc.,  have 
exerted  a  tremendous  educational  influence  in  the  promotion  of  health 
and  morals.  One  of  the  most  beneficent  features  of  the  entire  system 
has  been  that  parts  of  the  funds  of  these  organizations  are  invested  in 
model-houses,  hospitals  and  sanitoria  for  the  use  of  members.  The 
writer,  during  his  visit  to  Berlin  in  the  autumn  of  1907,  had  occasion 
to  inspect  some  of  these  workingmen's  houses,  as  well  as  the  most 
complete  and  elaborate  sanitorium  in  the  world,  at  Beelitz,  near  Berlin. 
The  object  of  this  is  to  provide  the  very  best  facilities  for  the  speedy  re- 
covery and  the  restoration  of  earning  power  of  the  industrial 
wage-earner.  Dr.  Bielefeldt  (Med.  Reform,  15th  Jahrg,  1907, 
page  238)  calculates,  that  in  the  treatment  of  159,802  tuberculous 
patients,  between  1897  and  1906,  the  net  gain  in  spite  of  an  expendi- 
ture of  fifty-six  million  marks  amounted  to  more  than  four  and 
one-half  million.  It  is  interesting  to  note,  that  the  Prussian  "in- 
surance institutes  and  sick  funds"  in  1907  alone  maintained  28  hos- 
pitals and  sanitoria,  the  latter  chiefly  for  consumptives  and  convales- 
cents. One  of  the  latest  features  was  the  establishment  in  1902  of  a 
special  hospital  for  sexual  diseases  in  the  male,  at  Lichtenberg,  near 
Berlin,  and  a  sanitorium  for  nervous  and  anaemic  female  wage-earners 
in  Pyrmont  (Hannover)  ;  all  upon  the  principle  that  it  is  in  the  highest 
degree  good  economy  to  restore  as  speedily  as  possible  the  unproduc- 
tive to  the  ranks  of  the  producers.  Some  conception  of  the  good  work 
may  be  found  by  a  brief  description  of  the  sanitorium  at  Beelitz,  which 
was  erected  in  1902  by  the  "insurance  institute"  of  Berlin  at  a  cost, 
according  to  report  of  Directors,  June,   1907,  of   15,287,994  marks. 


9i 

Average  number  of  patients,  41^5  male  and  203  females;  number  of 
cases  treated  in  1906,  4,192;  number  of  hospital  days,  212,457;  expense 
for  1906,  1,470,062.25  marks,  or  at  the  rate  per  capita  per  day  of  6.92 
marks.     One  portion  of  the  institution  is  devoted  to  the  treatment  of 

incipient  cases  of  tuberculosis;  another,  and  entirely  detached  depart- 
ment, to  cases  of  every  description  requiring  high-grade  sanatorium 
treatment  in  order  to  prevent  premature  invalidity.  Each  of  the  hand- 
some and  spacious  pavilions  accommodates  200  male  or  [00  U  ' 
apart  from  these  are  four  porter's  lodges  for  the  four  departments  under 
separate  enclosures,  I  general  administration  building,  I  central  power 
and  heating  plant,  I  central  bathing  establishment,  1  disinfecting  plant,  3 
pumping  stations,  kitchen,  laundry,  workshops,  quarters  for  medical  offi- 
cers, employees,  bowling  alleys,  hothouses,  stables,  etc.  The  hospital 
staff  consists  of  10  physicians  and  128  employees. 

The  writer  was  informed,  in  September,  1907,  that  since  the  estab- 
lishment of  the  '"sick  funds"  and  "insurance  institutes"  in  Germany, 
poverty  has  decreased  and  the  number  of  patients  treated  wholly  at 
public  expense  has  markedly  diminished,  as  workingmen  even  of  the 
humbler  classes  prefer  to  devote  their  sick  benefits  to  hospital  care, 
rather  than  be  a  charge  upon  the  parish  or  country. 

INCOME,  EXPENDITURES,  AND  INVESTED  FUNDS  OF  THE  INSURANCE  SYSTEM 


Items. 


Sick 

insurance, 

1 90 1. 


Accident 

insurance, 

1902. 


Old-age  and 

invalidity 

insurance, 

1902. 


Total  of  all 
insurance, 
1885  to   1901 


Dues  of  employers 

Dues  of  employees 

Subsidy    of   imperial    government. 
Interest  and   other  income 


Total  income 


Expenses   for   relief.... 
Cost   of   administration. 

Total   expenditures 

Invested  funds 


M3. 952, 723 
31,126,584 


2,604,130 


$29,907,868 


3.743.936 


$16,539,308 

16,539.308 

9,008,227 

8,054.310 


$508,445,565 

487,147,059 

51,049,907 

93,588,044 


47.683,437 

33,651,804 

50,141,153 

1,140,230.575 

43.595,450 
2,590,  S37 

25,735.679 
3,965,983 

28,658,559 
2,843,541 

755.oi5.72o 
79.993,721 

46,186,287 

29,701,662 

31,502,100 

835.009,441 

44,421,557   I   47.408,235  I  239,779,652  I   309,020,248 


Effects  of  the  Insurance  System  on  the  Employer  and  Consumer. — 
The  foregoing  table  shows  that  the  system  has  materially  added  to  the 
financial  burdens  of  the  employer,  but  it  is  believed  that  they  have  not 
been  too  heavy,  at  least  they  have  not  injured  Germany's  ability  to  com- 
pete in  foreign  markets. 

One  authority  estimates  that  the  amount  paid  by  the  employer  for 
accident  insurance  is  3  per  cent  of  the  wages,  for  sick  insurance  il/2  per 
cent  of  the  wages,  and  for  old  age  and  invalidity  insurance,  1  per  cent, 
or  a  total  of  $y2  per  cent  of  the  wages  added  to  the  cost  of  production. 


92 

Dr.  Lass,  of  the  Imperial  Insurance  Office,  concludes,  however,  that  this 
burden  has  not  been  shifted  to  wages,  nor  has  it  resulted  in  higher  prices 
tc  the  consumer,  but  has  been  made  up  by  improved  methods  of  produc- 
tion. 

The  writer  has  purposely  devoted  much  space  to  the  German  in- 
dustrial insurance  system,  because  he  realizes  that  sickness  and  funerals 
are  the  most  potent  causes  of  poverty  and  distress ;  he  knows  from  per- 
sonal knowledge  that  prior  to  1883,  Germany  depended  upon  employers' 
liability  laws,  charitable  organizations  and  private  companies  for  the 
protection  of  her  wage-earners,  with  very  questionable  results.  While 
much  has  been  achieved  in  other  directions  for  the  prevention  of  disease, 
the  most  distinct  gain  in  social-political  endeavors  was  made  by  the  en- 
actment of  these  laws,  and  especially  the  law  of  June,  1889,  authorizing 
"insurance  institutes"  to  invest  part  of  their  funds  in  hospitals  and 
sanitoria,  thus  affording  the  best  possible  facilities  for  the  speedy  re- 
covery and  the  prevention  as  far  as  practicable  of  permanent  disabilities. 

According  to  Zacher  (Leitfaden  zur  Arbeiterversicherung  des 
Deutschen  Reiches,  1906)  quoted  by  Professor  Henderson,  "at  the  end 
of  1905  in  all  70  million  pensioners  (sick,  injured,  invalids  and  their  de- 
pendents) had  received  $1,200,000,000  in  benefits.  The  workmen  have 
contributed  less  than  one-half  of  the  premiums,  and  have  received  $480,- 
000,000  more  than  they  have  paid  out.  Property  is  owned  to  the 
amount  of  $408,000,000,  of  which  $120,000,000  have  been  invested  in 
workmen's  dwellings,  hospitals  and  convalescent  homes,  sanitoria, 
baths  and  similar  institutions  of  welfare." 

There  is  no  pauperization  in  a  method  where  the  beneficiary  contri- 
butes such  a  large  share  to  the  undertaking.  As  a  matter  of  fact,  meth- 
ods in  vogue  in  our  own  country  are  calculated  to  shift  all  of  the  burden 
upon  the  tax-payer. 

For  a  more  complete  exhibit,  the  following  tables  are  reproduced 
from  Professor  Henderson's  article  in  Charities,  December  7,  1907 : 

Sickness   Insurance    (since    1883)  Marks 

Sickness    payments     1,114,629,489  =  1267,500,077.36 

Physicians    514, 803, 920  =  5123, 552, 940. 80 

Medicines,   &c 402,757,651=$  96,661,836.24 

Hospitals    303,061,148  =  $  72,734,675.52 

Death  benefits 83,763,839=$  20,103,321.36 

Lying-in-women    36,543,672  =  $     8,770,481.28 

Various    benefits     38,414,074  =  $     9,219,377.76 

1888-1904    $  2, 493, 973, 763=$598, 553, 710.32 

1905    250,000,000  =  $  60,000,000.00 

In  round  numbers 2,744,ooo,ooo  =  $6s8,56o,ooo.oo 


93 

Accident    Insurance    (since    1885)  Marks 

A 1  'Ml.  ill    l.i  in  lil 759.172,928  -$182,201  ,502.72 

Payments  i<>  dependenti  "i  diseased '01,777,557-  3 

Medical  care  171*84 

l  [ospitals    

I  leal  ii   bi  in  His    

Widows    7.7't7.57"    -$       I 

1 ligneri 3.846,489     $        603, 157.36 

1885-1904    i,057,758(58s  =  $253,862,o6o.40 

J  905    [36,000,000      ; 

in   round   numbers   1,194,000,000  —  $286,56 

Invalid  and  ol,l  age  pensions  (since   1 89 1 )  Marks 

1 11  v.i l ill    pensions    560,486,961  =1134,5 16,870.64 

( )ld  age  illusions  336,472,378=$  80,753,370.72 

Medical    care    55.37'. 747==$   >3.389.2'9-28 

Return  of  premiums  (a)  at  marriage 38,025,117:=$    9,126,028.08 

Return  of  premiums   (1>)  al  deatb 13,422,508  =  $    3,221,401,92 

Return  of  premiums  (c)  at  accident 171,201=5         41,088.24 

1891-1904    1, 003, 949, 9I2  =  $240, 947, 878.88 

1905   162,000,000=$  38,880,000.00 

In    round    Humbert    1,166, 000, 000  =  5279, 840, 000. 00 


It  is  sincerely  hoped  that  the  wage-earners  of  this  country  may  profit 
by  the  experience  elsewhere,  by  the  adoption  of  a  similar  system,  and 
thus  avoid  the  dangers  and  losses  to  which  they  are  now  so  frequently 
subjected  by  unscrupulously  managed  insurance  concerns. 

There  appears  to  be  no  good  reason  why  the  National  Government 
should  not  inaugurate  such  a  system  for  its  own  employees.  In  this 
connection  it  may  be  well  to  refer  to  a  most  successful  precedent  in  the 
establishment  of  the  United  States  Soldiers'  Home  in  Washington.  This 
institution  was  founded  in  185 1  with  $100,000.00  paid  as  indemnity  by 
the  city  of  Mexico.  Every  soldier  is  taxed  at  the  rate  of  12^  cents  per 
month,  which  is  deducted  from  his  pay.  This  together  with  the  fines 
from  courts-martial  and  forfeited  pay  from  deserters  is  turned  into 
the  treasury  of  the  home.  The  home  now  owns  property  costing  over 
$2,500,000.00,  accommodates  950  inmates,  pays  a  commutation  at  the 
rate  of  $8.00  per  month  to  soldiers  having  dependents  and  unable  to 
avail  themselves  of  the  privileges  of  the  home,  amounting  to  about 
$20,000.00  a  year,  and  still  has  a  reserve  fund  of  about  $4,000,000.00. 

WHAT  THE  EMPLOYER  MAY  DO  FOR  THE  WELFARE  OF 

EMPLOYEES. 

It  has  been  stated  at  the  outset  that  social  betterment  cannot  be  dis- 
associated from  industrial  betterment,  and  it  is  here  that  the  employer 
can  do  much  for  the  welfare  of  his  employees.  Apart  from  a  cheerful 
compliance  with  the  laws  and  ordinances  which  may,  from  time  to  time, 
be  enacted  for  the  protection  of  the  working  classes,  it  is  clearly  the  duty 
of  the  employer  to  promote  in  every  way  the  efficiency  and  earning 


94 

power  of  the  wage-earner  and  to  pay  such  wages  as  are  necessary  to 
improve  the  standard  of  living  among  poorly  paid  employees. 

There  is  no  doubt  that  thoughtful  employers  generally  realize  that 
they  are  not  only  responsible  for  the  proper  technical  training  of  appren- 
tices, but  also  for  their  habits,  and  a  gratifying  number  of  establish- 
ments have  made  every  effort  to  surround  them  with  all  possible  chances 
for  improvement,  mentally  and  morally.  There  is  a  class  of  youthful 
employees,  both  males  and  females,  for  whom  the  writer  begs  to  enter 
a  special  plea ;  they  are  entitled  to  every  consideration,  because,  either 
as  a  result  of  inheritance  or  faulty  environments  they  have  acquired  a 
general  inaptitude ;  they  are  perfectly  willing  to  work,  but  awkward  in 
all  their  movements — simply  do  not  know  how  to  work — and  soon  ex- 
haust the  patience  of  their  instructors. 

Such  persons  are  found  seeking  to  make  an  honest  living  in  nearly 
all  occupations,  and  while  they  may  be  better  adapted  to  some  employ- 
ments than  others,  to  discharge  them  without  a  fair  trial  means 
their  utter  ruin.  Here  appears  to  be  a  field  for  human  sympathy,  and 
special  pains  should  be  taken  to  teach  them,  by  patient  fellow  workmen, 
how  to  handle  tools  and  work  to  better  advantage,  whether  it  is  with  the 
pick  or  shovel,  at  the  ploughshare,  the  street  or  house  broom,  or  in  the 
diversified  employments  of  artisans'  workshops. 

Industrial  Betterment. — Space  will  not  permit  to  enter  into  details 
concerning  efforts  which  have  been  made  at  home  and  abroad  in  the 
promotion  of  the  general  welfare  of  the  working  classes.  At  a  meeting 
of  the  American  Social  Science  Association,  held  in  Washington,  April 
18,  1901,  Mr.  J.  H.  Patterson,  Dayton,  Ohio,  read  a  paper  on  factory 
sanitation  and  described  a  large  manufacturing  plant  of  which  he  is  the 
head,  and  their  close  adherence  to  the  principles  of  hygiene  and  the  up- 
lifting of  mankind.  The  interior  of  the  factory  is  painted  in  cheerful 
colors,  extra  windows  were  made  to  give  light,  forced  ventilation  to 
afford  plenty  of  fresh  air,  and  all  dust  and  acid  fumes  are  carried  away 
by  exhaust  fans.  Bathrooms  and  well  furnished  toilet  rooms  are  on  all 
the  floors.  All  seats  have  backs.  Clean  aprons  are  furnished  by  the 
company,  and  a  dining  room  where  hot  meals  are  served  and  a  course 
in  domestic  economy  is  conducted.  The  grounds  around  the  factory, 
and  the  houses  of  the  employees,  are  healthful  and  attractive.  "We 
have  demonstrated,"  said  Mr.  Patterson,  "that  this  system  pays  the 
employee,  the  manufacturer  and  the  buyer,  in  the  health  of  one,  profit 
of  the  second,  and  the  improved  quality  of  the  product  purchased  by 
the  third."  Bulletin  No.  31,  Department  of  Labor,  November,  1900, 
contains  an  article  on  betterment  of  industrial  conditions,  showing  what 
has  elsewhere  been  accomplished,  every  effort  being  in  the  right  direc- 


95 

tion.  Among  the  most  important  may  be  mentioned  !  i,  The  increasing 
of  industrial  efficiency  through  industrial  schools  and  manual  training 
classes;  2,  The  care  for  employees'  health  and  comfort  by  mean  of 
bathing  facilities,  gymnasiums,  calisthenics,  baseball,  bicycle  clubs,  din- 
ing and  lunch  rooms,  the  furnishing  of  hot  lunches  free,  or  at  cost,  im- 
proved sanitary  conditions  and  appliances ;  3,  The  improvement  of  do- 
mestic conditions  by  means  of  improved  dwellings,  instruction  in  sew- 
ing, cooking  and  housekeeping,  in  landscape  and  kitchen  gardening, 
and  the  exterior  and  interior  decorations  of  homes ;  4,  The  care  of  sick 
and  disabled  employees  and  their  families  by  means  of  free  insurance, 
medical  attendance  and  hospital  facilities  and  by  the  encouragement  of 
beneficial  organizations ;  5,  Club  organizations  for  social,  recreative  and 
intellectual  purposes  by  means  of  free  lectures,  libraries,  kindergartens 
and  educational  classes,  social  gatherings,  summer  outings,  meeting 
places,  game  rooms,  banquets,  dances,  etc. ;  6,  The  encouragement  of 
musical  and  dramatic  clubs  and  the  promotion  of  spiritual  life  by  means 
of  Sunday-schools  and  general  religious  work;  7,  The  cultivation  of 
thrift  through  savings  bank  facilities,  building  associations,  or  provident 
organizations,  rewards  for  valuable  suggestions  of  employees,  for  faith- 
ful service  or  the  manifestation  of  zeal  and  interest  in  their  employ- 
ment; 8,  The  promotion  of  employees'  personal  interest  in  the  success- 
ful conduct  of  the  business  by  encourgaging  and  assisting  them  to 
purchase  shares,  financial  aid  to  employees  in  case  of  unusual  hard- 
ships and  distress,  and  the  cultivation  of  cordial  and  even  confidential 
relations  between  employer  and  employees. 

(For  details  consult  Bulletin  of  the  Department  of  Labor  No.  31, 
pages  1117-1156).  It  is  gratifying  to  note  that,  although  Washington 
is  not  an  industrial  center,  a  large  number  of  firms  have  taken  steps  for 
the  promotion  of  the  general  welfare  of  employees. 

WHAT  THE  GENERAL  PUBLIC  MAY  DO. 

There  is  a  tendency  at  present  among  young  men,  the  sons  of  parents 
who  have  accumulated  some  means,  to  expect  to  live  and  grow  rich 
without  manual  labor.  It  is  becoming  fashionable  to  look  upon  the 
mechanic  with  disdain,  to  consider  manual  labor  degrading,  an  evidence 
of  low  breeding  and  all  such  nonsense.  The  young  men  want  to  be 
book-keepers,  bankers,  lawyers,  doctors,  or  office  holders,  anything 
which  does  not  involve  manual  labor,  and  expect  their  fathers  to  furnish 
the  means  to  attain  the  goal  of  their  ambition ;  as  a  result  the  profes- 
sions are  overcrowded  and  men  fail  who  might  have  been  successful  in 
the  handicrafts.     Let  us  teach  our  children  to  respect  and  perform  hon- 


96 

es*  labor,  whether  it  is  behind  the  ploughshare,  in  the  saddle,  or  in  the 
workshops.    It  will  teach  them  self-reliance,  prudence  and  perseverance. 

It  will  be  conceded,  that  the  burdens  of  improving  industrial  and 
social  conditions  should  not  be  carried  by  the  employer  and  employees 
alone.  There  are  many  phases  of  vital  importance  frcm  the  standpoint 
of  public  health  and  humanity,  which  should  concern  every  thoughtful 
man  and  woman.  Reference  has  already  been  made  to  the  appalling 
and  dangerous  conditions  under  which  many  of  the  trades  and  occupa- 
tions are  carried  on  in  tenement  houses.  While  this  is,  in  part,  due  to 
the  greed  of  the  manufacturer,  because  it  means  less  factory  space,  less 
rent,  light,  fuel,  and  a  decidedly  smaller  pay-roll,  the  consumer  is  equally 
to  blame,  because  of  his  constant  demand  for  cheaper  goods,  quite  ob- 
livious to  the  fact  that  the  garments  may  be  a  source  of  danger  from  in- 
fectious diseases,  and  are  stained  with  the  sweat  and  blood  of  help- 
less women  and  little  children. 

During  one  of  the  Presidential  campaigns,  a  clever  orator  referred 
to  Glasgow  and  told  us,  that  41,000  of  the  100,000  laboring  families  of 
that  manufacturing  center  lived  in  one-room  tenements,  and  that  this 
one  room  for  a  family  of  father,  mother,  daughters  and  sons,  told  what 
the  wages  in  Scotland  were  and  how  they  dragged  humanity  down 
into  bestiality  and  misery.  We  need  not  go  to  Glasgow  for  such  illus- 
trations, for  to  our  shame,  it  must  be  confessed,  that  similar  condi- 
tions obtain  in  nearly  every  American  industrial  city.  The  effects 
of  such  conditions  upon  death  rates  will  be  presently  referred  to.  In 
the  meantime,  it  will  be  readily  conceded  that  the  people  do  not  live 
ac  a  rule  in  such  quarters  from  choice,  but  from  sheer  necessity.  Low 
wages  compel  the  working  classes  not  only  to  find  shelter  in  houses 
unfit  for  human  occupation,  but  also  affect  their  health  and  the  health 
of  their  children  by  insufficient  food  and  clothing,  and  last,  but  not 
least,  it  means  the  utilization  of  child  and  female  labor  in  some  of  the 
most  atrocious  forms  referred  to  on  another  page.  Indeed  there  is 
much  reason  for  assuming  that  low  standards  of  living,  which  insuffi- 
cient wages  tend  to  beget,  play  a  very  important  role  in  physical,  mental 
and  moral  degeneracy.  "Physical  health  is  the  basis  of  mental  health." 
This  aphorism  of  Aristotle  has  been  proved  to  be  true  by  the  experi- 
ence of  every  educator. 

Professor  Dawson,  in  his  study  of  youthful  degeneracy  (Pedagog- 
ical Seminary,  vol.  IV,  page  2),  found  among  the  boys  and  girls  in 
reform  schools  evidence  of  physical  degeneracy  as  shown  by  lighter 
weights,  shorter  statures  and  diminished  muscular  power,  and  de- 
clared that  16  per  cent  of  those  examined  by  him  were  "clearly  sufferers 
from  low  nutrition."     It  is  to  be  hoped  that  the  public  conscience  may  be 


97 

Sufficiently  aroused  to  insist  upon  adequate  wages  for  all  claSK  ,  and 
that  (lie  producer  and  eonsuiner  alike  will  be  Willing  tO  a  uiii'-  this  rc- 
spousihility,  not  as  a  matter  of  charity,  hut  in  justice  to  the  laboring 
classes. 

In  the  whole  range  of  social  betterment  and  sanitation,  e  pecially 
in  our  efforts  to  combat  tuberculosis,  no  field  affords  better  Opportunity 
for  philanthropic  work  than  the  erection  of  sanitary  homes  for  wage- 
carncrs,  at  reasonable  rentals,  the  encouragement  of  cooking  schools 
and  the  establishment  of  model  lodging  and  eating  houses.  The 
York  City  and  Suburban  Homes  Company  has  now  for  dividend  dis- 
bursements 4.5  per  cent  a  year  on  an  investment  of  $5,500,000.  The 
Washington  Housing  Companies  have  an  investment  of  over  one  mil- 
lion, have  paid  respectively  4  and  5  per  cent  from  the  very  inception  of 
the  companies,  and  have  a  surplus  fund  of  over  $100,000.00.  London 
has  more  than  $100,000,000  invested  in  model  tenements. 

Houses  for  IVagc-earncrs. — The  housing  of  the  working  classes 
has  very  properly  been  made  the  subject  of  legislation  in  many  countries, 
and  is  a  matter  in  which  factory  owners,  labor  unions  and  the  general 
public  should  be  deeply  and  mutually  interested.  There  are  several  sys- 
tems of  dwellings  for  artisans  and  laborers,  viz.,  individual  houses  or 
cottages,  a  row  of  houses  under  one  roof,  and  the  so-called  "flats." 
Preference  should  be  given,  when  practicable,  to  the  cottage  system, 
but  in  large  cities  unfortunately  the  value  of  real  estate  frequently 
compels  the  erection  of  large  tenements,  and  in  such  an  event  the  State 
should  insist  upon  hygienic  requirements  as  regards  air  space,  light  and 
ventilation.  No  home  can  be  considered  sanitary  where  one  room  has 
to  answer  the  purposes  of  a  living  room,  sleeping  room  and  kitchen,  or 
where  the  water-closet  or  privy  is  used  by. more  than  one  family. 

Evil  Effects  of  Insanitary  Houses  and  Overcrowding. — The  primary 
object  of  habitations  is  to  secure  protection  from  the  influence  of  heat, 
cold,  rain,  sunshine  and  storms,  and  thus  promote  the  health  and  happi- 
ness, and  indirectly  also,  the  morals  and  culture  of  the  human  race. 

The  influence  of  sanitary  houses  can  not  be  overestimated.  Dr. 
Villerme,  in  an  investigation  in  France  from  1821  to  1827,  found  that 
among  the  inhabitants  of  arrondissements  containing  7  per  cent  of  badly 
constructed  dwellings,  1  person  out  of  every  J2  died ;  of  inhabitants  of 
arrondissements  containing  22  per  cent  of  badly  constructed  dwellings. 
1  out  of  65  died,  while  of  the  inhabitants  of  arrondissements  containing 
38  per  cent  of  badly  constructed  dwellings.  1  out  of  even'  15  died. 

With  the  present  rapid  transit  facilities  in  every  citv.  our  voice 
should  be  clearly  in  favor  of  individual  homes ;  and  when  this  is  im- 
practicable, we  should  insist  on  broad  streets  and  deep  vards.     Xo 


98 

more  than  68  per  cent  of  the  lot  should  be  covered  by  the  house,  and 
the  height  of  the  building  should  never  exceed  the  width  of  the  street. 
The  baneful  effects  of  tenement-houses  should  be  avoided,  as  infectious 
diseases  are  more  liable  to  spread  in  consequence  of  aerial  infection 
and  the  more  intimate  contact  of  the  occupants. 

Apart  from  structural  defects,  there  is  no  doubt  that  the  death 
rate  is  largely  determined  by  the  number  of  occupants  to  a  room. 
Russell  has  shown  that  in  Glasgow,  when  the  average  number  of  per- 
sons to  each  room  was  only  1.3 1,  the  mortality  was  21.7  per  1,000,  and 
when  the  number  of  occupants  amounted  to  2.05  for  each  room,  the 
mortality  reached  28.6  per  1,000. 

According  to  Korosi,  the  mortality  from  infectious  diseases  at 
Budapest  is  only  20  when  the  number  of  occupants  to  each  room  does 
not  exceed  2,  but  is  29  per  1,000  with  3.5  occupants,  32  per  1,000  with 
6.10  occupants,  and  79  per  1,000  when  there  are  more  than  10  occu- 
pants to  each  apartment. 

The  death  rate  at  Berlin,  in  1885,  among  the  73,000  one-room  ten- 
ants was  163.5  Per  1,000,  against  5.4  per  1,000  among  398,000  resi- 
dents occupying  four-or-more-room  apartments.1  The  analysis  of 
2,701  infantile  deaths  in  Berlin  during  1903,  investigated  by  Neu- 
mann, has  been  presented  elsewhere  in  this  work. 

Insanitary  dwellings  are  to  be  found  everywhere,  and  particularly 
in  older  cities  erected  at  a  time  when  the  principles  of  sanitation  were 
comparatively  unknown.  One  of  the  most  important  municipal  prob- 
lems is  to  correct  existing  evils  by  the  enactment  and  enforcement  of 
suitable  laws.  It  requires,  however,  a  strong  public  sentiment  to  bring 
about  a  complete  and  satisfactory  reformation,  as  evidenced  by  the 
housing  movement  elsewhere,  for  in  spite  of  the  excellent  tenement- 
house  laws  in  New  York,  according  to  Homer  Folks,  of  370,000  dark 
rooms  reported  in  existence  by  the  De  Forest  Tenement-house  Depart- 
ment in  1903,  some  20,000  only  have  been  opened  to  the  light  during 
the  past  3^4  years.  The  prohibition  against  the  use  of  cellar  and 
basement  rooms  partly  under  ground  cannot  be  enforced,  owing  to 
the  lack  of  a  sufficient  number  of  inspectors.  The  notorious  "Lung 
Block"  continues  to  contribute  its  horrifying  quota  to  the  annual  mor- 
tality.    (Charities,  November  30,  1907). 

The  writer  has  no  hesitation  in  declaring  that  the  housing  condi- 
tions of  the  least  resourceful  of  people  have  been,  and  are  even  now, 
more  potent  than  any  other  factor  in  helping  to  swell  the  frightful 
mortality  from  consumption  and  other  so-called  house  diseases  en- 
gendered by  unwholesome  environment. 

House  Diseases. — It  has  long  been  known  that  rickets,  scrofula 

'Town  and  City,  Jewett,  p.  14. 


99 

and  other  chronic  forms  of  tuberculosis  arc  especially  prevalent  in 
dark,  damp  and  insanitary  houses.  The  children  arc  ann-mic  and  as 
puny  as  plants  reared  without  the  stimulating  effect  of  sunlight 
Add  to  this  the  fact  that  dampness  abstracts  an  undue  amount  of 
animal  heat,  lowers  the  power  of  resistance  and  favors  the  develop- 
ment of  catarrhal  conditions,  which  render  the  system  more  vulnerable 
to  tuberculosis,  and  we  have  a  reasonable  explanation  why  these 
diseases  prevail,  especially  in  basements  or  houses  below  grade  and 
otherwise  unfit  for  human  habitation.  The  death  rate  is  often  double 
and  treble  that  of  other  localities,  and  while  there  are  doubtless  other 
factors  which  determine  the  frightful  mortality,  none  are  more  potent 
than  deficient  sunlight  and  ventilation.  Diphtheria,  cerebrospinal 
meningitis,  acute  and  chronic  rheumatism,  and  bronchial  affections 
are  also  more  frequent  in  insanitary  dwellings. 

That  the  siftme  is  true  of  infantile  diarrhoea,  is  doubtless  due  to  the 
fact  that  the  construction  of  the  buildings  does  not  protect  from  the 
heat  of  summer,  and  the  enervating  effects  of  heat  and  the  more 
speedy  decomposition  of  food  (especially  of  milk),  in  such  an  atmos- 
phere, combine  to  carry  on  the  slaughter  of  the  innocents. 

The  existence  of  disease-breeding  habitations  is  a  reflection  upon 
Christian  civilization,  and  there  should  be  sufficient  human  sympathy 
to  provide  decent,  healthful  homes  for  our  wage-earners,  who  consti- 
tute, after  all,  the  bone  and  sinew  of  the  country;  and  this  is  one  of 
the  occasions  when  we  may  well  act  as  our  brother's  keeper. 

The  history  of  improved  dwellings  reveals  everywhere  a  lessened 
death  rate,  and  the  experience  of  the  Washington  Sanitary  Improve- 
ment Company  is  equally  gratifying.  During  the  year  ending  Decem- 
ber 31,  1906,  the  apartments  were  occupied  by  778  adults  and  380 
children,  total  1,158;  births,  39  and  only  16  deaths,  10  adults  and  six 
infants,  a  death  rate  of  about  13.7  per  1000 — which,  with  all  due  al- 
lowance for  the  average  age  of  the  occupants,  shows  a  remarkably 
low  mortality,  when  compared  with  the  general  death  rate  among  the 
white  population  of  15.16  per  1,000. 

The  regeneration  of  the  housing  conditions  for  the  least  resource- 
ful people  is  the  great  sanitary  and  social  problem  of  the  twentieth 
century. 

Take  away  the  hovels  and  filthy  places,  let  sunshine  and  pure  air 
circulate  through  their  homes,  and  teach  them  habits  of  cleanliness  and 
responsibility,  and  the  first  step  towards  the  elevation  of  the  degraded 
and  the  education  of  the  ignorant  will  be  taken,  not  only  in  the  war- 
fare against  tuberculosis  and  other  diseases  engendered  by  insanitary 
surroundings,  but  also  in  the  battle  for  higher  moral  and  social 
standards. 


IOO 

Lodging  Houses  or  Homes  for  Wage-earners. — Those  who  have 
read  "The  Long  Day"  cannot  fail  to  be  impressed  with  the  just  criti- 
cism of  our  present  system  of  homes  for  working  girls.  The  author 
makes  a  strong  plea  for  homes  designed  after  the  Mills  Hotels  for 
working  men ;  no  charity,  but  so  built  and  conducted  that  they  will 
pay  a  four  per  cent  rate  of  interest  upon  the  money  invested.  "A 
clean  room  and  three  wholesomely  cooked  meals  a  day  can  be  fur- 
nished to  working  girls  at  a  price  such  as  would  make  it  possible  for 
them  to  live  honestly  on  the  small  wages  of  the  factory  or  store.  We 
do  not  ask  for  luxuries  or  dainties.  In  the  model  lodging  house  there 
should  be  perfect  liberty  of  conduct  and  action  on  the  part  of  the 
guests,  who  will  not  be  "inmates"  in  any  sense  of  the  word,  so  long 
~s  the  conventions  of  ordinary  social  life  are  complied  with." 

It  is  to  be  hoped  that  her  simple  but  truthful  story  will  be  read 
And  her  appeal  for  industrial  and  social  betterment  answered.  So 
long  as  the  conditions  described  in  the  book  exist,  so  long  will  it  be 
wicked  to  rear  magnificent  and  costly  church  edifices,  and  in  this  re- 
spect Christian  civilization,  which  should  be  a  strong  factor  in  up- 
lifting and  regenerative  influences,  has  been  remiss  in  its  sacred  obli- 
gations. To  supply  the  needs  spoken  of,  together  with  the  establish- 
ment of  cooking  schools  and  kindergartens,  so  that  the  children  of  toil 
may  at  least  have  an  opportunity  to  learn  to  work  intelligently,  may 
be  regarded  as  a  suitable  field  for  practical  Christianity,  and  would 
do  much  towards  narrowing  the  breach  which  now  exists  between 
the  church  and  wage-earners,  and  between  capital  and  labor. 

Food  for  the  Working  Classes. — While  the  character  and  variety 
of  food  now  served  is  very  much  better  than  it  was  fifty  years  ago,  it 
is  not  what  it  should  be,  especially  in  lodging  houses.  The  chief 
faults  consist  in  improper  cooking  and  the  widespread  error  of  con- 
suming a  cold  dinner  from  the  lunch  basket  or  dinner  bucket. 

The  art  of  cooking  and  how  to  supply  good  wholesome  food  and  in 
proper  quantities  should  be  made  the  subject  of  popular  instruction. 
The  "Ladies  Sanitary  Association  of  England,"  deserves  credit  for 
having  taken  this  matter  in  hand,  especially  since  experience  teaches 
that  nothing  prevents  the  abuse  of  alcohol  so  much  as  a  sufficient  and 
palatable  supply  of  food. 

The  establishment  of  public  kitchens  and  eating-houses  for  un- 
married laborers,  conducted  upon  practical  sanitary  and  economic 
principles,  would  prove  a  great  blessing;  the  same  may  be  said  of 
lunch  rooms,  where  rolls,  sandwiches,  a  cup  of  coffee,  tea,  milk,  hot 
soups,  etc.,  may  be  obtained  at  a  nominal  cost,  and  which  would  ma- 
terially lessen  the  evils  of  intemperance. 


101 

Since  coffee   and   tea  allay   thirst,   and   arc   Stimulants,   without   the 
depressing  effects  of  alcoholics,  there  is  no  reason   why  factories  and 
workshops  should  not  supply  these  beverages  at  noon   to  employ 
at  actual  cost.     The  subject  of  food  and  cooking  will  be  discussed  in 
a  special  paper. 

WHAT  THE  EMPLOYEE  MAY  DO  TO  CONTRIBUTE  TO  HIS 

OWN  WELFARE. 

Sufficient  has  been  said  in  the  preceding  pages  to  indicate  the 
dangers  to  which  the  working  classes  are  exposed  in  many  industrial 
pursuits,  and  the  methods  proposed  to  alleviate  the  effects  have  also 
been  pointed  out.  It  must  be  conceded  that  all  remedial  efforts  have 
been  prompted  by  the  true  spirit  of  humanity  and  as  a  social  duty; 
hence  it  is  reasonable  to  expect  that  wage-earners  should  show  a 
willingness  to  avail  themselves  of  the  various  "safety  devices"  and 
not  underrate  their  importance  in  the  protection  of  life  and  limb. 
While  it  is  criminal  for  employers  not  to  provide  suitable  protection, 
it  is  equally  culpable  on  the  part  of  the  operatives  to  disregard  all  such 
preventive  measures.  So,  for  example,  it  is  not  a  pleasing  reflection 
to  be  told  by  Dr.  Harrington,  professor  of  hygiene  at  the  Harvard 
Medical  School,  in  speaking  of  respirators,  that  "Aside  from  the  dis- 
comfort caused,  the  operatives  have  another  and  a  senseless  objection 
to  their  use ;  women  complaining  that  they  are  made  to  look  ridiculous, 
and  men  being  moved  to  discard  them  by  the  gibes  of  their  more  reck- 
less fellows."  During  the  past  two  weeks,  the  writer  visited  Frank- 
ford  arsenal  and  found  men  working  in  high  explosives  without  rubber 
gloves  and  respirators,  although  provided  by  the  Government.  (See 
page  21 ).  Dr.  Farrand,  Secretary  of  the  National  Association  for  the 
Study  and  Prevention  of  Tuberculosis,  also  spoke  to  me  of  the  great 
difficulties  he  and  others  have  encountered  in  New  York  and  New 
Jersey,  in  inducing  the  operatives  to  give  safety  devices  a  fair  trial. 

Part  II.— PERSONAL  HYGIENE. 

It  is  a  matter  of  constant  observation  that  families,  even  with  a 
modest  income,  get  along  very  well  until  sickness  and  death  enters  the 
once  happy  home ;  and  if  these  financial  burdens  and  sorrow  can  be 
prevented,  it  is  clearly  our  duty  to  do  so,  even  if  the  "chief  bread 
winner"  is  not  himself  incapacitated  for  work.  For  these  reasons  the 
writer  offers  a  few  suggestions  along  the  lines  of  general  and  personal 
hygiene,  with  the  hope  that  they  may  serve  to  diminish  human  suffer- 
ing and  distress.     In  doing  so.  while  utilizing  his  own  lecture  material, 


102 

he  has  not  hesitated  to  avail  himself  of  the  valuable  brochure  by  Pro- 
fessor Kalle  and  Dr.  Schellenberg  "How  to  keep  well  and  capacitated 
for  work,"  Berlin,  1907,  because  the  subject-matter  and  general  style 
i.<  specially  adapted  for  popular  education. 

House  and  Home. — Special  pains  should  be  taken  in  the  selection 
of  living  quarters,  no  matter  how  humble  they  may  be,  as  they  con- 
stitute our  abode  for  the  greater  part  of  our  life.  With  the  excellent 
motor  facilities,  there  is  no  reason  why  crowded  tenements  should  be 
chosen,  and  preference  should  always  be  given  to  individual  homes, 
or  apartments,  in  not  exceeding  two-story  tenements.  The  Germans 
have  an  old  but  true  proverb :  "Where  the  sun  does  not  enter  the 
doctor  surely  will,"  hence  dark,  gloomy  and  damp  houses  should  be 
avoided ;  mouldy  spots  on  the  walls  or  ceilings  and  a  close  musty  odor 
indicate  dampness,  and  cheap  rents  should  prove  no  inducement  to 
occupy  such  quarters.  Leaky  roofs  and  down  spouts,  or  a  pile  of 
ashes  against  a  brick  wall,  may  keep  the  house  damp,  and  the  causes 
should  be  promptly  removed.  In  all  such  instances,  as  well  as  in  the 
occupancy  of  a  recently  constructed  house,  it  is  very  desirable  to  dry 
out  the  house  by  heat  and  open  windows. 

Since  we  know  that  the  mortality  from  contagious  diseases  in- 
creases in  proportion  to  the  number  of  inmates  of  the  rooms,  hygiene 
requires  that,  even  the  most  modest  dwellings,  should  afford  sufficient 
room  to  prevent  overcrowding.  Ventilation  is  always  necessary,  but 
open  windows  are  especially  indicated  at  night,  as  nothing  can  take 
the  place  of  pure  fresh  air  in  small  quarters.  This  may  be  effectively 
accomplished  without  the  danger  of  draughts  by  opening  the  window 
in  the  bedrooms  from  the  top,  and  those  of  the  adjoining  room  at  the 
bottom.  Night  air,  contrary  to  popular  opinion,  is  not  unwholesome. 
The  only  danger  is  from  mosquitoes,  which  should  be  excluded  by 
proper  screening  of  windows  and  doors. 

There  are  many  families  who  properly  insist  upon  having  a  sit- 
ting room  or  parlor,  which  is  most  commendable,  if  the  bedrooms  are 
large  enough  to  afford  500  cubic  feet  of  air  space  for  each  occupant. 
If  they  do  not  it  is  desirable,  after  proper  airing  of  the  larger  rooms,  to 
utilize  them  for  sleeping  purposes,  for  it  must  be  remembered  that  the 
air  of  habitations  is  vitiated  by  the  consumption  of  oxygen  and  the 
exhalation  of  carbonic  acid.  The  airing  of  rooms  is  even  more  essen- 
tial in  cold  weather,  because  of  the  additional  pollution  by  carbonic 
acid  from  light  and  fires.  There  are  a  number  of  families,  unfor- 
tunately, who  for  various  reasons  are  obliged  to  live,  cook  and  sleep  in 
one  room,  and  for  whom  the  question  of  fresh  air  is  therefore  of  vital 
importance.     Such  families  should  not  hesitate  to  avail  themselves  of 


103 

the  benefit  of  fresh  air,  especially  when  medical  science  has  demon- 
strated the  advantages  of  fresh  and  even  cold  air  in  the  treatment  of 
consumption  and  pneumonia,  provided  the  body  is  kept  warm  by  suffi- 
cient bed  clothes. 

Household  dust  is  as  objectionable  in  many  respects  as  the  dust  of 
workshops,  because  dust  and  germs  always  go  baud  in  hand.  So,  fof 
example,  UfTelmann  found,  that  while  the  outer  air  contained  only 
250  germs  in  10  cubic  feet;  the  air  of  his  library  contained  2,900;  of  his 
sitting  room,  7,500;  of  his  bed  room  12,500,  and  the  air  of  a  living 
room  of  a  workingman's  family,  as  many  as  31,000  germs.  He  a!  0 
demonstrated  that  they  increased  after  disturbing  the  dust  of  the  roottu 
by  feather  dusters  or  by  slamming  the  doors,  showing  that  they 
actualy  cling  to  the  household  dust.  If  the  dust  should  happen  to 
contain  the  germs  of  tuberculosis,  from  carelessly  expectorated  sputum, 
or  which  may  have  been  carried  into  the  house  upon  the  soles  of  foot- 
wear, bottom  of  skirts,  etc.,  such  dust  may  prove  a  source  of  danger, 
especially  to  children. 

House  Cleaning. — For  reasons  just  given,  there  should  be  no  accu- 
mulation of  dust  in  any  part  of  the  premises.  Hygiene,  therefore, 
condemns  all  carpets  and  interior  finishes  which  serve  as  dust  and 
germ  traps,  such  as  heavy  cornices,  elaborate  mouldings  of  door  and 
window  frames,  wardrobes,  cumbersome  draperies  and  unnecessary 
furniture.  Hygiene,  on  the  other  hand,  approves  of  neatly  polished 
floors  with  small  rugs,  which  can  be  easily  taken  up  and  cleaned  out- 
side of  the  house,  curves  instead  of  cornices  and  angles,  smooth  and 
non-absorbent  walls,  instead  of  embossed  wall  papers,  simplicity  of  fur- 
niture, closets  instead  of  bureaus  and  wardrobes.  In  brief,  everything 
which  will  prevent  the  collection  of  dust  and  germs,  and  facilitate 
their  removal  may  be  regarded  as  hygienic.  So,  for  example,  a  plain, 
tinted,  smooth  wall,  or  the  varnished  wall  papers,  which  can  be  cleaned 
with  a  damp  cloth,  or  any  smooth  wall  paper  guaranteed  to  be  free 
from  arsenic,  are  in  point  of  health  superior  to  the  embossed  silk 
hangings  and  tapestries  of  the  rich  man's  home. 

The  object  of  house-cleaning  is  primarily  to  get  rid  of  the  dust 
and  germs.  In  sweeping  it  is  desirable,  therefore,  to  open  the  upper  win- 
dows, but  to  keep  the  door  leading  into  the  hall  closed,  so  that  the 
dust  may  not  be  wafted  back  into  the  house.  The  dusting  should  always 
be  done  with  a  soft,  damp  cloth,  frequently  changed.  Under  no  cir- 
cumstances should  the  feather  duster  be  used  inside  of  the  house,  as  it 
does  not  remove,  but  simply  displaces  the  dust.  If  the  cracks  in  floors 
have  been  neatly  filled  up,  and  the  floors  oiled  or  waxed,  they  can  be 
cleaned  with  a  damp  cloth  much  more  effectively  than  by  the  tiresome 
process  of  scrubbing,  a  drudgery  to  every  neat  housekeeper. 


104 

The  kitchen,  cooking  and  eating  utensils  need  special  care,  as  un- 
clean food  and  utensils  are  often  the  cause  of  cholera-morbus  and  diar- 
rhceal  diseases.  Captain  Sanderson,  in  the  Cook's  Creed,  published 
for  the  United  States  Army,  in  1862,  showed  his  sanitary  acumen  when 
he  says :  "Better  wear  out  your  pans  with  scouring  than  your  stomachs 
with  purging,  and  it  is  less  dangerous  to  work  your  elbows  than  your 
comrades'  bowels.  Dirt  and  grease  betray  the  poor  cook  and  destroy 
the  poor  soldier." 

Every  effort  should  be  made  to  have  clean  and  cool  storage  facilities 
for  food,  and  all  perishable  food,  especially  milk  for  infant  feeding, 
should  be  kept  on  ice  whenever  the  temperature  is  above  60  degrees. 

Temperature. — The  most  healthful  room  temperature  in  cold  weath- 
er is  between  65  and  70  degrees,  as  overheated  rooms  predispose  to 
colds,  and  should  be  avoided. 

When  the  house  or  apartment  is  heated  by  cast-iron  stoves  or 
other  heaters,  special  care  is  necessary  not  to  bring  them  to  a  red  heat, 
as  the  very  dangerous  coal  gas  is  liable  to  escape  through  invis- 
ible fissures  in  the  plate  and  joints  while  the  heaters  are  red  hot. 
It  is  desirable  to  select  a  good-sized  heater  lined  with  fire  clay,  which 
will  not  have  to  be  brought  to  a  red  heat,  and  at  the  same  time  fur- 
nishes sufficient  volume  of  warm  air.  If  the  air  is  superheated,  it 
acquires  a  peculiar  odor,  probably  due  to  charring  of  organic  dust;  it 
also  becomes  very  dry  and  irritating,  owing  to  the  rapid  evaporation 
of  moisture  from  the  skin  and  mucous  surfaces  of  the  inmates,  and  in 
consequence  is  apt  to  produce  catarrhal  affections,  conditions  which  do 
not  prevail  when  care  is  taken,  and  provisions  made  for  the  evapora- 
tion of  a  certain  amount  of  water.  Coal  oil  or  gas  stoves  cannot  be 
recommended,  unless  provisions  are  made  to  carry  off  the  products  of 
combustion. 

The  danger  from  fire,  which  is  always  a  great  calamity,  should  be 
reduced  to  a  minimum  by  preventing  the  accumulation  of  combustible 
material  on  the  premises,  proper  care  of  matches  and  instruction  of 
the  children.  Coal  oil,  gasolene,  etc.,  should  never  be  used  for  kindling 
purposes ;  there  is  always  great  danger  from  explosions,  fire,  and  fatal 
burns  by  filling  a  burning  lamp,  or  extinguishing  the  wick  by  blowing 
over  the  chimney,  or  using  a  lamp  when  the  chimney  is  broken. 

Insects. — Special  attention  should  be  paid  to  the  exclusion  and 
destruction  of  house  flies,  mosquitoes  and  other  insects,  for  apart  from 
the  discomfort  produced,  there  is  much  reason  for  assuming  that  dis- 
ease germs  may  be  conveyed  by  flies  and  mosquitoes,  fleas,  bed-bugs 
and  roaches.  Celli,1  of  Rome,  in  1888,  demonstrated  that  the  germs 
of  tuberculosis  and  other  disease  germs  may  retain  their  vitality  after 

"A.  Celli  Boll.  dell.  Loc.  Lancis,  degli  espedali  di  Roma,  1888. 


">5 

passing  through  the  intestinal  trad  of  flies.    Spillmann1  pointed  out 

that  flics  caught  while  feeding  upon  the  expectoration  of  a  consump- 
tive invariably  contained  viable  germs,  and  Hoffmann3  nol  only  con- 
firmed these  observations,  but  also  found  the  germ  .  in  the  fly  spots 
on  the  walls  of  a  room  occupied  by  a  pthisical  subject.  The  writer 
has  declared  it  his  opinion  for  years,  that  flies  may  carry  the  germs 
on  their  feet,  from  typhoid  stools  and  infected  sources,  to  the  food 
and  milk  Supply,  and  in  [8953  pointed  oul  a  number  of  hou  e  infec- 
tions in  this  city  which  could  not  be  explained  in  any  other  way.  The 
experience  of  the  Spanish-American  war  appears  to  have  fully  con- 
firmed this  conclusion.  In  like  manner,  the  germs  of  cholera  and  of 
the  oriental  pest  have  been  disseminated  by  the  house  fly. 

The  evidence  that  certain  species  of  mosquitoes  are  the  intermediate 
host  of  the  germs  of  malaria  and  yellow  fever,  and  that  man  may  be 
directly  inoculated  by  the  sting  of  these  insects  is  absolutely  conclusive. 
The  efficacy  of  measures  for  the  extermination  of  mosquitoes,  and  their 
exclusion  from  houses  by  proper  screening,  has  been  abundantly  dem- 
onstrated both  at  home  and  abroad. 

It  is  gratifying  to  know,  that  the  mystery  of  yellow  fever  was 
solved  by  the  work  of  Surgeons  Reed,  Carroll,  Lazear  and  Agramonte 
of  the  United  States  Army,  and  Surgeons  Gorgas  and  Keane  have 
demonstrated  the  best  methods  for  the  prevention  of  yellow  fever  and 
malaria  by  waging  an  unceasing  warfare  against  the  mosquitoes. 

Poultry,  pigeons  and  household  pets,  like  dogs,  cats  and  parrots, 
ought  not  to  be  kept  in  the  rooms,  as  they  contaminate  the  air,  harbor 
insects  and  may  even  convey  disease  germs.  Parrots  suffer  at  times 
from  a  pulmonary  disease,  which  is  transmissable  to  man,  while  certain 
forms  of  skin  disease  and  itch  may  be  conveyed  by  dogs  and  cats. 

What  has  been  said  of  the  desirability  of  general  cleanliness  applies 
with  equal  force  to  the  basement,  cellar,  attic,  yard,  outhouses,  garbage 
cans,  etc.  There  should  be  no  accumulation  of  rubbish  within  or 
without  the  premises.  Where  no  sewer  connections  exist,  the  out- 
houses should  be  kept  in  a  clean  condition,  and  the  seats  provided  with 
lids  so  as  to  exclude  flies.  It  is  also  a  good  plan  to  disinfect  the  vault 
or  receptacle  with  chlorinated  lime  or  fresh  whitewash,  etc. 

A  good  housewife  can  not  only  accomplish  a  great  deal  for  the 
health,  but  also  for  the  comfort  and  morals  of  the  family.  As  indi- 
cated by  our  German  authors,  general  order  and  neatness,  clean,  white, 
washable  curtains,  some  potted  plants  and  a   few   suitable  pictures, 

1  Spillmann  and  Hanshalter.  Comptes  rendus  105.  p.  352. 
2Hoffmann  Deutsche  Med.  Zeitung.  188S.  Xo.  57. 
3Report  of  the  Health  Officer,  District  of  Columbia.  1895. 


io6 

avoiding  the  loud  chromos,  and  a  cheerful  and  refined  atmosphere  will 
do  much  towards  keeping  the  husband  and  sons  from  the  saloons. 

As  a  matter  of  fact,  much  may  be  done  to  transform  undesirable 
living  quarters  into  healthful  homes,  while  filth,  neglect  and  slovenly 
housekeeping  often  convert  even  structurally  good  houses  into  verita- 
ble hotbeds  for  disease  germs.  So,  too,  persons  with  delicate  con- 
stitutions may,  by  attention  to  the  laws  of  health,  attain  to  a  good 
old  age,  while  the  physical  giant  by  a  reckless  life  soon  undermines 
h's  general  health  and  goes  to  a  premature  grave. 

Care  of  the  Skin. — The  skin  is  supplied  with  a  network  of  blood 
vessels  and  nerves,  and  is  a  sensory,  respiratorv,  execretory  and  heat 
regulating  organ.  As  a  sensory  organ,  it  combines  with  the  tactile 
functions,  the  power  of  perceiving  impressions  of  warmth  and  cold. 
The  respiratory  functions  of  the  skin  are  limited,  to  be  sure ;  neverthe- 
less, small  quantities  of  oxygen  are  absorbed  and  carbonic  acid  is 
eliminated.  Apart  from  this,  the  skin  of  an  average  adult  eliminates 
through  the  sweat  glands  about  2%  pounds  of  water  a  day.  Human 
sweat  contains  about  2  per  cent  of  solid  constituents,  mostly  in  the  form 
of  waste  matter  or  impurities,  and  the  odor  varies  in  different  regions 
of  the  body  and  in  different  races.  The  skin  also  secretes  a  fatty 
substance  through  the  sebaceous  glands.  As  the  water  from  the  skin 
evaporates,  the  solid  matter  remains  upon  the  surface,  combines  with 
dirt,  harbors  germs  and  readily  undergoes  decomposition,  which,  apart 
from  the  disagreeable  odors  so  characteristic  of  unclean  persons,  also 
tends  to  mascerate  the  skin  and  is  liable  to  produce  "galling  or  chaf- 
fing," pimples  and  boils. 

Last,  but  not  least,  the  accumulation  of  this  matter  would  natur- 
ally close  the  pores  of  the  perspiratory  and  sabaceous  glands  and 
throw  the  work  of  eliminating  the  impurities  upon  other  organs. 

A  normal  cutaneous  function  is  doubtless  of  great  hygienic  im- 
portance, as  shown  by  the  occurrence  of  many  diseases  following  its 
suppression,  because  in  such  an  event,  in  addition  to  the  retention  of 
the  waste  matter  in  the  blood,  work  is  thrown  upon  the  kidneys  and 
other  eliminating  organs,  and  these,  if  already  weakened,  naturally 
break  down.  Since  the  functions  of  the  skin  depend  not  only  upon 
its  anatomical  intactness,  but  also  upon  cleanliness  and  a  proper  tone 
of  the  cutaneous  vessels  and  nerves,  a  rational  culture  of  the  skin 
demands : 

1,  That  it  should  be  freed  regularly  from  the  secretory  products 
and  particles  of  dirt;  2,  That  the  cutaneous  nerves  retain  their  normal 
excitability  or  when  impaired  that  they  regain  their  tone;  3,  That  we 
assist  the  skin  in  its  heat-regulating  functions,  so  that  it  may  not  be 


io7 

overtaxed.     All   of   which   may   he   accomplished   by   ablutions,    hath 
and  suitable  clothing. 

Ablutions  and  Baths. — Regular  and  systematic  ablutions  with  soap 
and  water  arc  requisite  for  reasons  already  given,  ami  dally 

necessary  when  engaged  in  dirty  work  or  exposed  to  poisonous  dust 
In  addition  to  the  chemical  effects  of  soap,  vigorous  friction  with  a 
brush  may  be  employed,  not  omitting  the  finger  nails,  as  disease  germs 
have  been  found  in  nail  dirt. 

The  water  used  should  not  be  too  warm  for  the  body,  as  this  would 
relax  the  skin  and  increase  the  susceptibility  to  catching  cold.  If  the 
bathing  is  not  done  in  the  bath  tub,  it  will  be  well  to  wash  and  dry 
part  of  the  body  at  a  time.  In  any  event  the  surface  should  be  wiped 
dry  and  hard,  especially  the  hair,  since  wet  hair  is  calculated  to  pro- 
duce colds.  It  is  always  a  good  plan  to  wash  the  neck  and  chest  with 
cold  water,  so  as  to  harden  the  skin. 

We  will  now  briefly  refer  to  the  different  forms  of  baths.-  The 
cold  bath  is  usually  taken  in  a  tub  or  by  means  of  a  shower  or  needle 
bath  at  a  temperature  of  about  65  degrees  for  adults.  It  should  not  last 
over  3  minutes.  Cool  baths  vary  from  65  to  80  degrees.  Tepid  baths 
are  taken  at  a  temperature  of  between  80  and  90  degrees,  continued 
from  10  to  15  minutes.  Warm  baths  vary  from  90  to  100  degrees,  and 
are  generally  employed  for  their  cleansing  effect.  In  addition,  there 
are  steam  or  Russian  baths,  the  Turkish  or  dry  hot-air  baths,  river  and 
ocean  baths,  swimming  pools  connected  with  public  baths,  medicated 
baths,  etc.  Swimming  baths  are  particularly  useful,  as  they  also  afford 
an  opportunity  for  muscular  exercise,  and  as  the  temperature  of  the 
water  is  rarely  above  80  degrees.  Such  baths  are  both  cleansing  and 
stimulating,  and  therefore  an  excellent  tonic  for  the  skin.  All  baths 
should  be  followed  by  a  cool  douche  and  friction  with  a  rough  towel 
should  be  employed  until  the  skin  is  in  a  general  glow.  The  value  of 
bathing  is  so  fully  appreciated  that  the  building  regulations  of  this  city 
compel  a  bathroom  for  every  apartment  offered  for  rent.  No  com- 
munity should  fail  to  make  provisions  for  public  baths,  both  in  summer 
and  winter.  The  beneficial  effects  upon  the  health  and  morals  of  the 
least  resourceful  people  cannot  be  too  strongly  emphasized.  The  old 
Roman  baths  were  prominent  features  of  the  daily  life  of  the  Romans, 
and  were  counted  among  the  choicest  privileges.  Eleven  large  and  826 
smaller  public  institutions  adorned  the  ancient  capital  during  the 
Diocletian  period,  and  the  baths  of  Caracalla.  the  ruins  of  which  can 
be  seen  today,  could  accommodate  1,600  bathers  at  one  time. 

The  following  sensible  rules  on  the  subject  of  bathing  have  been 
issued  by  the  English  Humane  Society,  and  are  well  worth  observing 


io8 

by  bathers :  "Avoid  bathing  within  two  hours  after  a  meal.  Avoid 
bathing  when  exhausted  by  fatigue  or  from  any  other  cause.  Avoid 
bathing  when  the  body  is  cooling  after  perspiration.  Avoid  bathing 
altogether  in  the  open  air,  if,  after  having  been  a  short  time  in  the 
water,  there  is  a  sense  of  chilliness,  with  numbness  of  the  hands  and 
feet,  but  bathe  when  the  body  is  warm,  provided  no  time  is  lost  in  get- 
ting into  the  water.  Avoid  chilling  the  body  by  sitting  or  standing 
undressed  on  the  banks  or  in  boats,  after  having  been  in  the  water. 
Avoid  remaining  too  long  in  the  water,  but  leave  the  water  immedi- 
ately if  there  is  the  slightest  feeling  of  chilliness.  The  vigorous  and 
strong  may  bathe  early  in  the  morning  on  an  empty  stomach.  The 
young,  and  those  who  are  weak,  had  better  bathe  two  or  three  hours 
after  meals ;  the  best  time  for  such  is  from  two  to  three  hours  after 
breakfast.  Those  who  are  subject  to  giddiness  or  faintness,  or  suffer 
from  palpitation  or  other  sense  of  discomfort  at  the  heart,  should  not 
bathe  without  first  consulting  their  medical  adviser." 

Clothing. — The  object  of  clothing,  apart  from  the  moral  and  aesthetic 
aspect,  is  to  aid  the  skin  in  its  heat-regulating  functions.  It  should, 
therefore,  afford  protection  against  heat  and  cold,  as  well  as  rain  and 
mechanical  irritation.  Clothing  must  be  adapted  to  climate  and  sea- 
sons, and  extremes  should  be  avoided ;  as  a  general  rule,  warm  woolen 
goods  are  best  suited  for  winter  wear,  and  cotton  or  linen  for  warm 
weather.  It  should  be  understood,  however,  that  flannels  absorb 
more  dirt,  odors,  germs  and  water  than  linen  or  silk,  whilst  cotton 
occupies  an  intermediate  position.  The  question  of  wet  clothing,  wheth- 
er from  perspiration  or  rain,  is  important,  as  the  drying  of  clothing  on 
the  body  involves  an  expenditure  of  animal  heat,  and  it  is  not  a  matter 
of  indifference  whether  this  takes  place  rapidly  or  slowly.  It  is  a  fact, 
that  a  wet  cotton  shirt  or  sweater  feels  more  uncomfortable  and  colder 
than  a  wet  woolen  garment.  The  simple  reason  is  that  the  cotton  gar- 
ment dries  more  rapidly,  but  it  abstracts  during  the  same  time  more 
animal  heat  than  flannels.  This  fact  is  not  without  a  practical  bearing, 
as  it  teaches  that  persons  who  perspire  easily  will  do  well  to  wear  flan- 
nels next  to  the  skin,  and  this  is  all  the  more  important  when  they  are 
liable  to  draughts  or  abrupt  changes  in  temperature. 

As  a  protection  against  cold,  wool  is  superior  to  either  cotton  or 
linen,  and  should  be  worn  for  all  underclothing.  In  case  of  extreme 
cold,  besides  wool,  leather,  fur  or  water-proof  clothing,  on  account  of 
their  impermeability  to  air,  are  useful.  As  a  protection  against  cold 
winds,  for  equal  thickness,  leather  and  india-rubber  take  the  first  rank, 
wool  the  second.  As  a  protection  against  rain,  india-rubber  or  oiled 
canvas  clothing  is  the  best,  but  it  is  an  exceedingly  hot  dress,  owing 


[00, 

to  its  impermeability  to  air,  which  causes  condensation  and  retention 
of  the  perspiration.    To  overcome  this  objection,  Duma  '    a 

material,  which  is  water  proof  and  yet  permeable,  prepared  aa  follow 
The  garment  is  placed  in  a  7  per  cent  solution  of  gelatine,  heated  to  a 
temperature  of  100  degrees  F.    After  immersion  for  a  few  minuto 
it  dried  in  the  air  and  after  drying  it  is  soaked  in  a  }i  per  cent  solution 
of  alum  and  again  dried. 

As  a  protection  against  heat  in  the  shade,  the  thickness  and  conduct- 
ing power  of  the  material  are  the  only  factors  to  be  considered.  Text- 
ure has  nothing  to  do  with  protection  from  the  direct  solar  rays ;  it 
depends  entirely  on  color,  and  white  is  the  best.  As  a  protection  against 
fire,  leather  clothing  is  generally  worn.  The  fabric  can  be  rendered 
non-inflammable  by  the  addition  of  20  per  cent  of  tungstate  of  soda 
and  3  per  cent  of  phosphate  of  soda  to  ordinary  starch  sizing,  while 
cotton  or  linen  goods  may  be  treated  simply  with  starch  and  borax, 
in  the  proportion  of  a  teaspoon ful  of  borax  to  l/2  pint  of  starch. 

Clothing  as  a  Cause  of  Disease. — Clothing  may  impair  the  func- 
tions of  the  body  and  cause  disease :  1,  By  improper  fitting,  which  leads 
to  compression  of  blood  vessels  and  nerves  and  interferes  with  the 
normal  position  of  organs  and  the  movements  of  the  body ;  2,  By  im- 
proper selection  of  material  affording  either  insufficient  protection  or 
overheating  a  part  or  the  whole  of  the  body ;  improper  material  may 
also  produce  irritation  or  interfere  with  the  ventilation  of  the  skin  :  3, 
By  wet  clothing,  which,  in  drying,  may  abstract  sufficient  animal  heat 
to  cause  peripheral  irritation  and  reflex  internal  congestions ;  4,  By 
poisonous  dyes,  such  as  compounds  of  arsenic  and  antimony,  chrome 
yellow,  zinc  chloride  and  some  of  the  aniline  colors.  The  toxic  symp- 
toms may  manifest  themselves  by  general-  impairment  of  health  or  in 
local  affections  of  the  skin  ;  5,  Clothing  may  harbor  disease  germs,  and  a 
number  of  instances  are  on  record  in  which  itch,  smallpox,  tuberculosis 
and  scarlet  fever  have  been  spread  by  second-hand  clothing  and  bed- 
ding.    This  points  to  the  necessity  of  thorough  disinfection. 

Special  Arrangement  of  Dress. — The  head  dress. — As  long  as  the 
head  is  covered  with  hair,  the  head  dress  should  be  permeable  and  not 
too  warm,  lest  headache  may  be  induced ;  on  the  other  hand,  insufficient 
covering  may  produce  neuralgia  and  rheumatic  affections. 

The  head  and  eyes  should  always  be  protected  from  the  direct  rays 
of  the  sun,  and  for  this  purpose  broad-brimmed,  dark  felt  hats  for  cold 
weather,  and  straw  or  some  other  light-colored  material  for  summer 
use  are  the  best. 

For  the  Neck. — Nothing  should  be  worn  around  the  neck  which 
would  overheat  the  parts,  dilate  the  blood  vessels  and  render  the  skin 


no 

sensitive.  The  collars  should  be  loose  fitting,  so  as  not  to  compress 
the  blood  vessels.  The  neck  ought  to  be  bared  as  much  as  possible  and 
hardened  by  frequent  ablutions  with  cold  water. 

For  the  Body. — For  undergarments,  the  union  suits  are  the  best. 
They  should  secure  a  normal  amount  of  warmth  and  be  so  arranged  as 
not  to  interfere  with  the  free  movements  of  the  chest,  or  compress 
or  displace  the  abdominal  and  pelvic  organs.  For  these  reasons,  cor- 
sets and  waistbands  are  wholly  inadmissible.  Suspenders  should  be 
worn  by  both  sexes,  or  women  may  wear  a  bodice  arranged  for  the 
attachment  of  skirts,  so  as  to  suspend  their  weight  from  the  shoulders. 
Steel  corset  stays  and  tight  lacing  cannot  be  too  strongly  condemned, 
because  there  is  ample  evidence  that  they  have  caused  displacement 
and  disease  of  the  abdominal  and  pelvic  organs. 

The  stockings  should  be  made  of  some  warm,  permeable  material, 
such  as  wool  or  merino,  as  the  circulation  is  rather  feeble  in  the  lower 
extremities,  and  the  feet  are  more  liable  to  perspire.  They  should  be 
long  enough  to  reach  above  the  knees  and  there  fastened  with  some 
loosely-fitting  band.  Tight  elastic  bands  and  other  constricting  garters 
are  liable  to  produce  varicose  veins. 

The  trousers  must  be  sufficiently  loose  around  the  waist  and  else- 
where to  permit  of  free  circulation  of  blood. 

Footzvear. — Boots  and  shoes  are  intended  to  protect  the  feet  from 
the  uneven  and  rough  surfaces  of  the  ground,  from  cold,  wet  and  even 
heat,  and  must  be  constructed  so  as  to  meet  these  requirements. 
It  is  needless  to  insist  that  they  should  be  patterned  after 
the  foot.  The  sole  of  a  shoe  should  be  so  constructed  that  the 
great  toe  touches  it  in  such  a  way  that  a  line  projected  posteriorly 
through  the  middle  of  this  toe  will  strike  the  middle  of  the  heel.  The 
heel  should  be  broad  and  low,  so  as  not  to  throw  the  weight  on  the 
toes.  Across  the  tread  and  toes,  the  sole  should  be  sufficiently  broad  to 
permit  of  lateral  expansion.  The  uppers  should  be  soft  and  flexible, 
but  not  too  roomy,  and  should  fit  snugly  around  the  ankles  and  insteps. 
Elastic  gaiters  are  preferable  to  laced  shoes. 

It  is  perhaps  needless  to  insist  that  cleanliness  in  body  and  cloth- 
ing is  next  to  godliness.  This  may  be  secured  by  frequent  bathing 
and  change  of  underwear.  It  is  also  a  good  plan  to  use  night-shirts  or 
pajamas,  so  as  to  afford  an  opportunity  for  a  thorough  airing  of  the 
underwear  worn  during  the  day.  If  in  spite  of  general  cleanliness, 
there  should  be  indications  of  excessive  sweating  and  disagreeable 
odors,  especially  of  the  feet,  a  physician  should  be  consulted. 

Bed  and  Bedding. — Since  about  one-third  of  our  life  is  spent  in 
bed,  something  should  be  said  of  this  article  of  comfort  and  necessity. 


[  [  I 


As  the  object  of  the  bed  is  to  promote  a  refreshing  sleep,  il  should  be 
long  and  broad  enough  to  permit  of  the  necessary  extension  of  the 
body;  it  should  he  elastic,  so  as  not  to  compress  the  soft  parts  un- 
necessarily, and  it  should  be  warm,  but  not  too  warm.  Metallic  bed" 
steads  are  preferable  to  wood,  because  less  liable  to  be  infected  with 
insects;  they  should  be  provided  with  a  woven-wire  mattress  which 
admits  of  free  circulation  of  air.  Upon  this  may  be  placed  a  ma' 
of  hair,  felt,  cotton  or  excelsior,  and  pillows  preferably  made  of  horse 
hair.  Feather  pillows  are  too  heating  for  the  head,  unless  a  layer  of 
paper  has  been  interposed,  and  high  pillows  are  objectionable,  as  the 
position  of  the  sleeper  would  impede  the  movement  of  the  diaphragm. 
Sheets  and  pillow  cases  of  cotton  for  winter  and  of  linen  for  summer 
are  necessary  to  prevent  irritation  of  the  skin  and  soiling  of  the  mat- 
tress, pillows  and  blankets. 

The  most  suitable  coverings  for  a  bed  are  woolen  blankets ;  they 
are  warm  and  their  permeability  admits  of  the  escape  of  gases.  For 
warm  weather  a  cotton  quilt  or  comforter  or  even  a  linen  sheet  are 
preferable.  The  bedding  should  be  aired  every  morning  and  exposed, 
whenever  practicable,  to  sunlight,  which  is  Nature's  purifier  and  de- 
stroys all  forms  of  germs. 

"Feather  beds"  and  "down  quilts"  are  warmer  than  blankets,  as 
the  air  contained  in  the  feathers  is  a  bad  conductor  of  heat,  but  they 
are  only  suitable  in  very  cold  climates,  or  for  anaemic  and  delicate  indi- 
viduals, because  they  overheat  the  body,  cause  dilation  of  the  cutaneous 
vessels  and  consequently  relax  and  impair  the  tone  of  the  skin. 

The  sleeper  should  lie  with  his  head  slightly  raised,  preferably  with 
the  body  inclined  to  the  right  side.  He  should  rise  rather  slowly  from 
the  recumbent  position,  since  a  sudden  change  to  the  erect  position, 
not  only  accelerates  the  heart's  action,  but  also  changes  the  blood  dis- 
tribution too  abruptly.  The  bed  should  be  so  placed  that  the  occupant 
is  not  disturbed  by  the  influence  of  light.  A  sound,  refreshing  sleep 
can  only  be  had  when  the  senses  are  no  longer  stimulated,  and  light  is 
a  stimulus  which  acts  even  through  the  closed  eyelids. 

Sleep. — We  are  still  in  ignorance  of  the  exact  nature  of  sleep  or 
the  suspension  of  automatic  activity  of  the  brain.  Some  authors  main- 
tain that  it  is  due  to  an  accumulation  of  waste  products  in  the  blood 
and  central  nervous  system,  and  that  it  ceases  with  the  elimination  of 
these  products.  Others  believe  that  sleep  results  from  the  exhaustion 
of  the  supply  of  intra-molecular  oxygen,  while  still  others  attribute  it 
to  a  temporary  anaemia  of  the  brain.  On  the  whole,  there  is  much 
reason  for  assuming  that  the  refreshing  effects  of  sleep  are  due  to  the 
elimination  of  waste  products  from  the  system  and  the  absorption  of 
a  fresh  store  of  oxygen.     At  all  events,  Pettenkoffer  and  Yoit  found 


112 

that  of  the  954.5  grms.  of  oxygen  absorbed  by  a  healthy  adult,  in  the 
course  of  24  hours,  659.7  grms.  are  absorbed  between  6  o'clock  in  the 
evening  and  6  o'clock  in  the  morning. 

Amount  of  Sleep  Required. — It  is  well  known  that  healthy,  new- 
born infants  sleep  all  day,  except  whilst  nursing.  About  the  third  or 
fourth  week  of  their  life  they  may  remain  awake  for  one-quarter  of  an 
hour,  in  addition  to  their  nursing;  in  the  seventh  or  eighth  week  they 
remain  awake  one-half  hour,  and  in  the  fifth  month  about  one  hour,  but, 
even  when  a  year  old,  a  child  sleeps  more  than  half  of  the  24  hours. 
During  the  second  and  third  year  it  sleeps  from  10  to  12  hours  at  night 
and  from  2  to  2^2  hours  in  the  day  time.  After  the  completion  of  the 
third  year,  the  necessity  for  sleep  in  daytime  ceases. 

Uffelmann  has  made  a  series  of  careful  observations  and  believes 
that  "healthy,  well-cared-for  children  between  4  and  6  years  of  age  re- 
quire 11  hours  of  sleep;  at  7  years  of  age,  10  to  10^2  hours  of  sleep; 
at  10  years  of  age,  gl/2  to  10  hours  of  sleep;  at  12  years  of  age,  9  hours 
of  sleep ;  at  14  years  of  age,  83/2  hours  of  sleep ;  youths  between  16  and 
20,  8^  hours  of  sleep ;  Adults,  7^  to  8  hours  of  sleep ;  while  the  aged 
require  a  larger  amount  of  sleep." 

No  hard-and-fast  lines,  however,  can  be  drawn ;  some  children  and 
adults  can  get  along  with  less,  and  others  require  more  sleep.  On  the 
whole,  we  may  conclude  that  the  average  adult  requires  about  8  hours 
of  sleep,  and  if  the  amount  is  materially  lessened  languor,  pallor,  ner- 
vous irritability  and  general  peevishness  may  be  observed. 

Excessive  sleep  is  harmful,  as  it  tends  to  produce  sluggishness  of 
the  bodily  functions,  especially  of  the  digestive  organs.  It  lessens 
tissue  metamorphosis  and  favors  the  deposition  of  fat — not  to  mention 
the  bad  effects  of  the  prolonged  presence  in  a  polluted  atmosphere. 

We  are  also  beginning  to  understand  that  the  reason  why  an  excess 
of  sleep  instead  of  being  restful  to  intellectual  energy  is  rather  ex- 
haustive is :  after  a  certain  amount  of  sleep,  even  though  the  body 
continues  to  be  somnolent,  the  mind  awakes  and,  in  the  midst  of  the 
undirected,  rapidly-varying  mental  excursions  which  follows  as  much 
nerve  force  and  mental  energy  is  expended  as  would  be  necessary  for 
the  more  continuous  thinking  of  regular  intellectual  work. 

Irregularity  in  sleep  is  always  objectionable.  The  human  body 
resents  irregular  habits  of  all  kinds.  Many  infants  sicken  because  of 
irregular  nursing,  and  we  all  experience  unpleasant  symptoms,  when 
from  any  cause  our  regular  meal  hours  are  interrupted,  and  it  is  per- 
fectly natural  that  such  an  important  organ  as  the  brain  should  demand 
regularity  in  action  and  rest. 

Irregular  bed  hours  are  not  calculated  to  promote  a  sound  and  re- 
freshing sleep.     Since  we  enjoy  the  best  sleep  before  midnight,  the 


"3 

hours  between  10  o'clock  P.  M.  and  6  A.  M.  or  n  to  7  A.  M.  are  the 
most  suitable. 

Opinions  differ  as  to  the  admissibility  of  a  nap  after  dinner,  and 
the  question  must  be  decided  by  individual  circumstances.  It  is  quite 
certain,  however,  that  there  is  no  physiological  necessity  for  such  a 
sleep  in  healthy  children  above  the  age  of  four,  nor  for  men  and 
women  in  their  best  years,  unless  they  have  taken  an  inordinate  amount 
of  food.  Persons  in  advanced  age  may  profit  by  a  short  rest,  which 
seems  often  demanded  by  an  overwhelming  drowsiness ;  the  same  may 
be  said  of  delicate  and  anaemic  individuals  and  those  suffering  from 
diseases  of  the  digestive  system. 

Dreams. — In  spite  of  considerable  research  the  occult  character 
of  dreams  has  not  been  entirely  cleared  up,  although  psychologists 
are  agreed  that  they  constitute  a  manifestation  of  intellectual  life  in- 
volving the  expenditure  of  a  certain  amount  of  brain  force  or  mental 
energy.  Practical  experience  also  teaches  that  a  dreamless  sleep  is 
in  every  way  recuperative,  while  a  dreamful  night  produces  a  tired 
feeling  in  the  morning;  hence  dreams  should  be  avoided,  if  possible. 

There  is  much  reason  for  believing  that  the  old  custom  of  relating 
dreams,  and  the  attempt  to  interpret  them,  has  a  bad  effect  on  the 
minds  of  all,  and  especially  of  children,  as  it  tends  to  bring  about  a 
similar  mental  rambling  during  sleep  of  subsequent  nights.  Attention 
has  recently  been  called  in  an  editorial  (Journal  A.  M.  A.,  July  28, 
1907),  to  the  fact  that  children  suffer  more  frequently  from  night 
terrors,  which  are  really  overvivid  dreams,  on  Sunday  and  Monday 
nights.  This  is  partly  attributed  to  the  fact  that  the  children  have 
indulged  in  the  "imagination-intoxicating"  colored  supplement  to  the 
Sunday  newspaper  with  its  horrors  and  its  dream  suggestions.  Those 
of  us  who  have  been  brought  up  in  rural  districts  and  have  listened  to 
dream  tales  and  folk-lore  and  perused  exciting  literature  have  learned 
that  all  of  this  is  productive  of  dreams  and  night  terrors,  and  should 
be  avoided. 

CARE  OF  SPECIAL  ORGANS  OR  PARTS   OF  THE  BODY. 

Importance  of  Good  Teeth. — When  we  recall  the  physiology  of 
digestion  it  is  scarcely  necessary  to  point  out  the  importance  of  a  good 
set  of  teeth  in  order  to  secure  thorough  mastication  and  insalivation 
of  the  food.  The  temperature  of  food  and  drink  exerts  a  special  in- 
fluence on  our  teeth.  It  has  been  shown  that  a  sudden  change  from  hot 
to  cold  in  the  mouth  causes  the  enamel  to  crack,  and  leads  to  premature 
decay  of  the  teeth,  because  the  microbes  in  the  mouth  will  find  these 
fissures  a  suitable  lurking  place  for  their  destructive  work. 


114 

The  temperature  of  food  should  as  nearly  as  possible  approach  the 
normal  animal  temperature  98.2  degrees,  and  a  temperature  of  46  de- 
grees may  be  regarded  as  an  extreme  low  temperature  and  one  of  120 
degrees  as  an  extreme  high  temperature  for  the  introduction  of  food 
or  drinks.1  The  teeth  should  never  be  used  for  the  purpose  of  crack- 
ing nuts.  Microbes  of  every  description  abound  in  the  mouth,  and 
find  in  the  presence  of  lodged  and  decaying  particles  of  food  a  suitable 
medium  for  their  multiplication.  In  order  to  prevent  their  destructive 
effects,  cleanliness  of  the  mouth  is  absolutely  essential.  This  can  be 
secured  by  brushing  the  teeth  with  water  and  castile  soap  after  each 
meal  and  before  retiring.  In  case  particles  of  food  cannot  be  thus 
dislodged,  a  soft  silk  thread  drawn  between  the  teeth  will  accomplish 
the  purpose  more  effectively  and  wisely  than  a  tooth  pick.  If  the  teeth 
are  already  painful,  or  show  evidence  of  decay  or  of  accumulation  of 
tartar,  a  dentist  should  be  consulted.  It  is  a  wise  plan  to  have  the  teeth 
examined  once  a  year,  and  as  there  are  free  dental  infirmaries,  the 
question  of  cost  should  not  deter  even  the  least  resourceful  people. 

Habit  and  Regularity  of  the  Bowels. — As  pointed  out  by  Hammond2 
when  we  perform  an  act  under  the  operation  of  certain  impressions, 
there  is  a  tendency  towards  the  performance  of  a  similar  act,  if  like 
influences  are  brought  to  bear  upon  the  organism.  "This  disposition 
to  repetition  prevails  in  nearly  every  function  of  the  body  and  mind 
until  some  powerful  force  intervenes."  It  is  shown  by  the  sensation 
of  hunger  and  thirst  which  occur  at  customary  meal  hours,  the  desire 
to  evacuate  the  bowels  at  the  same  hour  of  the  day,  the  desire  for  sleep, 
the  hour  of  awakening  and  the  inexpressible  feeling  excited  by  the 
want  of  a  smoke  or  a  customary  stimulant. 

Constipation. — When  regularity  of  the  bowels  is  established,  the 
desire  to  go  to  the  stool  returns  at  the  same  hour.  If  this  tendency 
is  resisted,  it  is  not  long  before  constipation  becomes  the  rule,  with  all 
its  attending  consequences  of  ill  health.  The  most  natural  remedy  to 
correct  this  morbid  habit  will  be  persistent  effort  to  secure  an  evacua- 
tion every  day  at  a  fixed  hour,  aided  by  the  use  of  succulent  vegetables 
and  fruits,  and  if  necessary  by  small  doses  of  olive  oil,  cotton-seed  oil 
or  Epsom  salts  and  water. 

One  of  the  most  baneful  effects  of  constipation  is  hypochondry — a 
nervous  and  mental  condition  brought  about  by  absorption  of  poison- 
ous products  in  the  intestinal  tract,  and  the  continued  action  of  the 
mind  upon  some  one  organ  or  function  supposed  to  be  disordered,  nota- 

xIt  is  believed  that  this  question  also  plays  an  important  role  in  the  undue 
prevalence  of  dyspepsia. 

2Treatise  on  Hygiene,  Wm.  A.  Hammond,  1863,  p.  122. 


"5 

bly  the  heart,  liver  and  stomach.  The  disease  appears  most  commonly 
in  irritable  individuals  and  in  those  exhausted  from  a  variety  of  causes. 
Such  persons  are  of  sound  judgment  in  other  respects,  but  reason 
erroneously  on  whatever  concerns  their  own  health.  In  these  cases, 
apart  from  correcting  the  digestive  derangements,  it  is  often  necessary 
to  act  upon  the  mind  by  keeping  it  occupied  with  matters  which  will 
divert  the  thoughts  of  the  patient  from  himself.  This  is  often  readily 
accomplished  on  the  golf  links  in  persons  who  require  exercise. 

Care  of  the  Eyes. — It  is  well  known  that  exposure  of  the  eyes  to 
the  direct  rays  of  the  sun  may  cause  inflammation  of  the  retina  and  even 
total  blindness,  and  similar  effects  may  be  produced  by  the  reflected  rays 
of  the  sun  from  mirrors,  sheets  of  water,  white  walls  and  snow  (snow 
blindness).  On  the  other  hand,  defective  lighting,  as  pointed  out  on 
page  80,  also  produces  mischief,  and  must,  therefore,  be  avoided  in 
the  home  as  well  as  in  the  shop.  Sudden  transposition  from  light  to 
dark,  or  dark  to  light,  is  also  injurious  and  may  cause  serious  diseases 
of  the  eyes.  Whenever  there  is  any  evidence  of  redness,  inflammation, 
pain,  watering  or  "mattering"  of  the  eyes,  a  physician  should  be  con- 
sulted. While  free  bathing  of  the  eyes  with  cold  water  may  exert  a 
preventive  and  tonic  effect,  the  value  of  good  eysight  is  too  great  to 
trust  to  domestic  remedies,  or  even  to  the  services  of  an  optician. 
Whenever  there  is  any  difficulty  in  reading,  accompanied  by  pain  or 
headache,  an  occulist  should  be  chosen.  When  we  recall  the  number 
of  accidents  which  befall  the  eyes  in  many  occupations,  the  importance 
of  protective  goggles  must  be  apparent. 

Ear  and  Nose. — These  organs  should  be  kept  clean.  There  is 
danger  from  lodgment  of  foreign  bodies,  particularly  in  children,  which 
may  impair  the  hearing  for  life,  especially  when  injudicious  attempts 
at  removal  have  been  made.  In  such  instances  it  is  always  best  to 
consult  a  competent  physician.  The  chief  function  of  the  nose  evi- 
dently is  to  arrest  more  or  less  of  the  dust  and  germs  upon  its  mucous 
surfaces,  and  in  cold  weather  to  warm  the  inspired  air.  Hence,  the 
importance  of  cleanliness  and  of  breathing  through  the  nose  instead  of 
the  mouth.  In  order  to  do  this  without  discomfort,  it  is  necessary 
that  there  be  no  obstruction  in  the  nasal  passages,  and  persons  suffer- 
ing from  ca'.arrh  or  other  symptoms  of  difficult  breathing  will  do  well 
to  undergo  treatment.  In  this  connection  attention  should  be  called  to  the 
advantages  of  so-called  ''deep  breathing"  in  the  open  air  or  near  an 
open  window.  This  is  best  accomplished  by  taking  10  or  12  deep 
inspirations  morning  and  evening,  so  as  to  inflate  the  lungs  to  their 
fullest  expansive  capacity.  This  practice  is  believed  to  secure  a  thor- 
ough ventilation  of  all  the  air  vesicles  and  to  increase  the  power  of 
resistance  to  the  invasion  of  the  tubercle  bacillus. 


n6 

APPENDIX  A.. 

HEALTH  OF  EMPLOYEES  IN  THE  GOVERNMENT  PRINT- 
ING office,  Washington!1 


By  Wji.  J.  Manning,  M.  D.,  Chief  of  the  Sanitary  Division,  Govern- 
ment Printing  Office. 


Owing  to  improved  hygienic  conditions  in  modern  printing  offices, 
type  foundries  and  stereotype  and  electrotype  foundries,  lead  poison- 
ing now  exists  to  a  very  limited  extent  in  these  trades. 

In  the  Government  Printing  Office  at  Washington,  where  upward 
of  4,500  employees  are  gathered  in  one  building,  excellent  hygienic 
conditions  prevail.  Every  ten  minutes  the  air  in  each  nxm  is  changed 
by  a  very  simple  device,  consisting  of  air  shafts  leading  from  the 
basement  to  the  roof  and  which  are  pierced  in  such  room  near  the 
ceiling  with  suitable  openings.  A  revolving  fan  placed  just  below  the 
roof  creates  a  suction,  so  that  a  constant  supply  of  fresh  air  is  available 
at  all  times,  owing  to  the  vacuum  thus  formed. 

The  electrotype  and  stereotype  foundries  are  placed  on  the  topmost 
floor,  the  modern,  rapidly  moving  elevators  making  this  practicable, 
so  far  as  the  employees  are  concerned.  At  that  height  from  the  ground 
currents  of  air  are  constantly  in  motion,  with  a  consequently  greater 
diffusion  of  the  gases  than  would  prevail  on  floors  nearer  the  ground. 
In  the  large  newspaper  buildings  of  the  various  cities  in  the  United 
States  the  same  idea  is  being  carried  out,  these  rooms  being  placed  as 
high  in  the  air  as  possible. 

In  the  type-founding  and  stereotyping  trades  employees  whose 
duties  call  them  to  work  over  the  fumes  of  the  melting  pots  are  most 
exposed  to  the  injurious  influences  of  lead,  although  the  large  amount 
of  alloy  present  tends  to  lessen  the  danger. 

"Finishers"  of  the  plates,  who  handle  only  the  smooth,  hard,  bright 
slabs  of  the  alloyed  metal,  which  are  free  from  all  oxides,  run  the  least 
risk  of  lead  poisoning.  The  fact  that  there  is  little  or  no  dust,  coupled 
with  the  fact  that  the  small  particles  which  rub  off  the  plates  on  the 

'Dr.  Manning's  article  on  Plumbism,  which  is  here  reproduced,  was  sub- 
mitted by  him  in  competition  for  a  prize  offered  by  the  Internationales 
Arbeitsamt,  Basel,  Switzerland.  The  article  was  purchased  for  publication  by 
that  office  on  account  of  merit. 


I./ 
hands  of  the  workman  are  in  the  metallic  state  and  perfectly  dry, 

renders  it  less  liable  tO  be  absorbed.      Ill  eonlradi  .tin-  Hon   tO  tin     i     the 

case  of  the  painter.     Mere  tin-  lead,  being  in  the  form  <>\  a  carbonate 

(white  lead)   and  being  mixed  witli  SUCH  an  excellent  ab  orbing  mate- 
rial as  oil,  is  much  more  rapidly  absorbed. 

In  type  foundries  practically  the  ame  condition  exii  t  a-  in  electro- 
type foundries.  Those  who  work  in  the  vicinity  of  the  melting  pots 
are  much  more  liable  to  the  toxic  vapors  which  arise  from  the  melting 
pot.  This  is  particularly  the  case  where  the  lead  is  impure  and  con- 
tains volatile  substances  which,  combining  with  the  lead  fumes,  might 
possibly  add  to  the  toxic  influences  of  the  lead.  Hence,  in  "fluxing" 
the  metal,  when  wax  is  used  as  the  agent,  as  little  as  possible  should  be 
used. 

Females  are,  as  a  rule,  employed  in  this  country  to  sort,  finish,  and 
pack  the  type.  Here,  as  with  the  "finishers"  in  the  electrotype 
foundries,  the  metal  is  bright  and  free  from  oxides,  besides  being 
largely  alloyed ;  hence,  the  chance  of  absorption  with  toxic  results  is 
greatly  lessened.  Doctor  Osier  has  pointed  out  that  the  ratio  of 
women  susceptible  to  lead  poisoning  is  small  as  compared  with  men. 
Why  they  are  thus  immune  is  hard  to  say ;  but,  so  far  as  type  founding 
is  concerned,  probably  the  above  statement  indicates  the  cause. 

With  the  compositor  the  chances  of  absorption  of  lead  from  the  type 
metal  by  the  skin  is  probably  nil.  Only  a  small  portion  of  the  epidermis 
of  the  fingers  (the  apex  of  the  thumb  and  forefinger)  is  brought  in 
contact  with  the  metal  both  in  "distributing"  and  in  "setting,"  and  the 
epidermis  at  these  parts  is  in  a  more  or  less  thickened,  dense  condition. 
Thus,  the  compositor  is  protected  from  absorbing  the  metal,  even 
when  the  type  is  covered  with  the  hydrate  which  is  formed  by  the 
long-continued  action  of  air  and  water.  It  is  well  known  that  sub- 
stances are  absorbed  but  slightly,  if  at  all,  through  the  skin  that  is  in  a 
thickened  condition.  If  one  will  stop  to  consider  that  the  small  atoms 
which  become  separated  from  the  metal  type  in  one  way  and  another 
are  in  a  metallic  form  the  chances  of  absorption  are  even  more  remote. 

The  danger  to  the  compositor,  as  with  the  melting-pot  tender,  would 
seem  to  lie  in  inhalation.  With  the  former  the  introduction  into  the 
system  would  be  by  dust,  and  with  the  latter  in  the  form  of  gas. 

When  foreign  bodies  are  taken  into  the  system  in  a  state  of  fine  sub- 
division, the  favorite  seat  will  be  found,  as  a  rule,  in  the  bronchi  and 
the  lungs.  The  process,  so  far  as  compositors  are  concerned,  might  be 
termed  plumbiosis.  The  dust  which  is  not  carried  directly  into  the 
alveoli  of  the  lungs  by  the  air  breathed  finds  lodgment  on  the  mem- 
brane of  the  bronchi  and  the  ramifications  thereof.     That  considerable 


n8 

is  carried  down  the  esophagus  into  the  stomach  and  from  there  swept 
out  into  the  intestines  is  not  to  be  doubted.  Might  not  these  fine  par- 
ticles cause  the  "colic"  or  active  peristalsis  by  the  stimulation  of  the 
circular  and  longitudinal  muscular  fibers  in  a  mechanical  way  on  the 
muscles  themselves  or  in  a  chemic  way  by  a  stimulation  of  the  nerves 
controlling  these  fibers?  This  "colic"  is  one  of  the  first  symptoms 
complained  of  by  the  patient. 

That  the  white  blood  corpuscles  play  an  important  part  in  carrying 
this  finely  divided  substance  throughout  the  body  is  also  probable,  the 
mode  of  action  being  to  inclose  the  fine  particles  and  try  to  dissolve 
them,  and,  failing  in  that,  to  transport  them  to  distant  points  in  the 
body  and  to  the  various  organs.  In  that  condition  known  as  anthra- 
cosis,  or  coal-miner's  consumption,  the  lung  is  found  to  be  covered 
with  black  dust.  The  same  conditions  are  found  in  those  suffering 
from  stonecutter's  consumption,  the  lack  of  carbon  rendering  the  pig- 
ment somewhat  lighter  in  color.  The  condition  is  known  as  lithosis. 
In  the  knife  and  saw  sharpener's  trade  the  dust  is  in  the  form  of  steel 
and  the  consequent  disease  is  known  as  siderosis.  In  each  case  the 
fine  dust  finds  lodgment  in  the  lungs. 

The  lungs  become  so  pigmented  after  long  exposure  to  these  condi- 
tions, and  the  alveoli  so  congested  and  choked,  accompanied  by  a  low 
form  of  inflammation  that  the  substances  set  up,  that  this,  with  the 
unhygienic  surroundings  and  bad  ventilation,  might  explain  why  so 
many  compositors  die  each  year  from  tuberculosis.  Certainly  the 
tubercle  bacilli  find  a  congenial  environment  in  which  to  begin  their 
fatal  work.  To  the  above  conditions  must  be  added,  of  course,  the 
toxic  influence  of  the  lead  itself,  together  with  the  persistent  astringent 
effect  of  the  lead  on  the  air  cells.  Lead  is  a  very  feeble  antiseptic  and 
does  not  seem  to  inhibit  the  growth  of  the  bacilli. 

The  lymph  nodes  very  likely  play  an  important  part  in  carrying  the 
lead  through  the  body  to  produce  plumbism.  When  lymph  nodes 
become  loaded  with  foreign  material  of  any  nature  they  are  apt  to 
break  down  and  the  circulation  carries  the  substances  to  various  parts 
of  the  body.  This  would  seem  to  explain  the  peculiar  color  of  those 
suffering  from  plumbism,  and  it  might  explain  why  the  kidneys  become 
so  irritated  and  why  albumin  is  found  in  the  urine.  Certain  tissues 
seem  to  have  an  affinity  for  the  lead  thus  carried  and  it  is  deposited  in 
them.  The  blue  line  on  the  gums  which  is  pathognomic  of  lead  poison- 
ing may  be  the  result  of  this.  It  may  be  that  sulphur,  which  has  such  a 
strong  affinity  for  lead  and  which  might  be  taken  into  the  mouth  in  arti- 
cles of  food  and  drink  causes  this  pigmentation.  It  is  strange  that  the 
blue  line  does  not  make  its  appearance  on  any  other  part  of  the  body. 


«9 

Certain  it  is  that  potassium  sulphide  when  added  to  a  bath  will  bring 
out  this  pigment  over  the  entire  body,  whirl)  remains  until  the  lead  in 
the  skin  is  either  eliminated  or  the  affinity  is  satisfied. 

Lead  poisoning  in.  the  chronic  form,  as  already  stated,  is  very  rare 
among  type  founders,  electrotypcrs,  stereotypcrs  and  in  the  printing 
trades  in  this  country.  It  may  present  itself  in  the  regular  type  or  the 
symptoms  may  be  hidden.  The  characteristic  symptoms  are  the  blue 
line  on  the  gums,  and  the  wrist  drop,  due  to  the  paralysis  of  the  exten- 
sors of  the  forearms.  In  some  cases  it  first  makes  its  appearance  in 
anaemia  and  in  loss  of  strength.  Anaesthesia  may  appear  in  spot  on 
different  parts  of  the  body,  the  spots  varying  in  size  from  half  a  dollar 
to  tracts  as  large  as  the  hand.  They  may  appear  on  the  arms,  legs, 
or  on  the  back.  In  some  cases,  however,  these  symptoms  are  entirely 
absent.  Albumin  may  appear  in  the  urine.  Doctor  Osier  describes 
cases  that  have  come  under  his  care  where  the  symptoms  resembled  gout 
and  rheumatism.  The  joints  would  swell  and  become  very  red  and 
tender,  the  patient  suffering  all  the  while  intense  pain.  Doctor  Wood 
mentions  cases  where  the  symptoms  resembled  acute  poliomyelitis. 
In  other  cases  there  was  simply  a  failure  of  health,  anaemia,  nervous 
phenomena,  etc.,  the  patient  having  ill-defined,  sharp,  shooting  pains. 
The  pain  from  the  colic  seems  to  merge  from  the  umbilicus  in  all  in- 
stances. Arteriosclerosis  has  been  noticed  with  atrophy  of  the  kidneys 
and  hypertrophy  of  the  heart,  the  enlargement  of  the  latter  organ 
probably  being  due  to  the  redoubled  effort  of  the  heart  to  force 
the  blood  through  the  various  contracted  distal  organs.  This  contrac- 
tion may  be  due  in  a  measure  to  the  astringent  action  of  the  lead  which 
is  noticed  upon  all  tissues  when  lead  is  applied  in  its  various  forms. 

The  treatment  in  these  cases  may  be  divided  into  the  preventive 
and  curative,  the  former  relating,  of  course,  only  to  the  trades  men- 
tioned in  this  article.  Among  the  measures  which  might  be  taken  in 
the  prevention  of  plumbism  in  the  printing,  type  founding,  and  electro- 
typing  and  stereotyping  trades  would  be,  first  of  all,  the  location. 
The  rooms  devoted  to  the  melting  of  type  metal  should  be  situated  as 
high  as  possible  in  the  air  and  on  the  topmost  floor  of  the  building. 
The  pots  should  be  covered  with  iron  hoods  that  will  cover  the  entire 
top  of  the  melting  pot  proper.  The  hood  should  set  as  near  the  metal 
as  possible,  in  such  a  way  that  it  will  not  interfere  with  the  manipula- 
tion of  the  ladles  or  dippers.  Hoods  with  small  pipes  when  used  as 
fume  chambers  do  not  answer.  It  has  been  found  that  to  be  of  any 
service  or  benefit,  the  pipe  leading  from  the  hood  or  fume  chamber 
should  be  nearly  as  large  as  the  chamber  itself  and  should  lead  to  a 
smoke  chimney  or  into  the  outside  air.     The  heat  generated  should 


120 

supply  draft  enough  to  carry  the  fumes  off  in  this  way.  It  might  be 
aided  by  placing  a  revolving,  circular  ventilator  in  the  pipe  from  the 
outside  and  operated  by  the  wind.  The  whole  thing  might  be  made 
very  cheaply  of  galvanized  iron.  Various  face  masks  have  been  sug- 
gested, but  none  seem  to  be  practical,  and  after  they  are  worn  for 
some  time  really  become  a  greater  danger  than  if  they  had  not  been 
used,  owing  to  the  lack  of  cleanliness.  Cotton  and  such  substances  in 
the  nose  are  useless,  because  the  workman  will  then  breathe  through 
his  mouth.  The  rooms  should  be  at  least  10  feet  high.  Windows 
should  be  placed  on  both  sides  of  the  room,  so  that  a  current  of  air 
may  be  in  constant  motion  and  a  fresh  supply  always  on  hand.  In 
winter  or  bad  weather  a  very  simple  way  to  obtain  fresh  air  consists  in 
placing  a  board  3  or  4  inches  high  lengthwise  under  the  lower  window 
sash.  This  will  enable  the  fresh  air  to  enter  between  the  lower  and 
upper  windows  without  causing  a  direct  draft  on  the  workmen. 

The  personal  treatment  on  the  part  of  the  workman  should  be  a 
change  of  underclothing  after  work,  a  bath  at  least  three  times  a 
week  in  hot  water  with  plenty  of  soap,  and  at  the  same  time  the  vig- 
orous application  of  a  flesh  brush  to  the  skin.  The  object  here  is 
twofold — to  keep  the  pores  free  and  to  remove  any  particles  that  may 
have  lodged  there,  and  hence  lessen  the  danger  of  absorption,  while 
at  the  same  time  helping  the  pores  to  eliminate  that  which  has  been 
absorbed.  The  bowels  should  be  kept  open  by  the  use  of  such  simple 
laxatives  as  sweet  oil,  castor  oil,  calomel  and  soda,  etc.  An  electro- 
typer  who  has  been  in  the  business  for  some  forty  years,  and  who  is 
now  the  chief  of  the  largest  foundry  in  the  world,  informed  me  that  it 
was  his  custom  to  take  a  teaspoonful  of  sweet  oil  every  other  day  and 
that  he  had  never  suffered  from  any  ill  -effects  of  plumbism. 

So  far  as  compositors  are  concerned  the  preventive  treatment  just 
described  would  apply  to  them.  The  principal  danger  here  is  the  bad 
ventilation,  insanitary  surroundings,  and  the  dust  (principally  graphite 
and  minute  particles  of  type  metal)  which  becomes  detached  by  the 
abrasion  of  the  pieces  against  each  other  while  being  handled.  To  off- 
set this,  "cases"  should  be  blown  out  by  a  bellows  at  least  once  each 
week ;  if  possible,  in  the  open  air.  The  bottoms  in  the  different  boxes, 
instead  of  being  flat  and  square  cornered  and  covered  with  paper,  should 
be  slightly  concave  at  the  bottom,  with  the  corners  rounded  somewhat 
like  a  cash  till,  the  idea  being  to  keep  the  dust  from  lodging  in  the 
corners,  where  it  is  difficult  to  remove  even  with  a  bellows.  In  cases 
constructed  in  this  manner  the  dust  is,  by  its  own  weight,  constantly 
working  its  way  toward  the  center  of  each  box,  where  it  can  easily  be 
removed. 


121 

A  practical  method  of  removing  the  caked  dual  i  in  vogue  in  the 
Government  Printing  Office  al  Washington.  The  type  forms  after 
leaving  the  electrotype  foundry  are  placed  on  a  raised  rack  which  drains 
into  a  shallow  tank  sonic  6  inches  in  depth,  a  pipe  connecting  this 
with  a  sewer.  The  forms  arc  placed  in  a  horizontal  po  ition — that  is 
to  say,  the  side  of  the  chase  rests  on  the  rack.  Steam  under  pn 
is  conducted  by  a  rubber  hose  and  the  face  of  the  type  '  thoroughly 
"blown,"  as  is  the  reverse  of  the  form.  Later,  when  the  form-,  are 
unlocked,  the  pages  are  tied  up  and  placed  in  the  "boiling  chamber." 
This  chamber  consists  of  a  zincdined  box  about  6  feet  in  length,  4  feet 
wide,  and  4  feet  high,  a  trapdoor  opening  from  the  top  being  the  only 
opening.  In  the  bottom  is  placed  a  coil  of  steam  pipe  which  covers 
the  entire  floor  of  the  box,  one  end  of  the  pipe  being  left  open.  The 
pages  of  type  are  placed  on  shallow  perforated  trays  somewhat  like 
a  "galley,"  each  tray  fitting  in  a  copper  rack,  consisting  simply  of  two 
loops  of  copper,  somewhat  like  an  inverted  U  with  pins  attached  on 
which  the  trays  set.  Each  rack  holds  eight  pages,  or  a  "signature," 
on  the  eight  trays.  After  the  box  is  filled,  steam  is  turned  on  and  the 
type  is  thoroughly  boiled  for  an  hour  or  more.  The  cages  are  lifted 
in  and  out  by  means  of  hooks.  This  method  not  only  removes  the 
graphite,  but  disintegrates  the  type  and  "loosens"  it,  permitting  easy 
distribution.  It  also  leaves  the  type  very  clean  and  aseptic,  lessen- 
ing the  chances  of  infection  by  the  absence  of  germs.  The  method  of 
letting  cold  water  run  on  the  forms  and  thus  cleansing  them  is  not  so 
thorough,  because  the  graphite  "cakes"  and  clings  to  the  type  and  the 
dust  is  thrown  into  the  compositor's  case  with  the  type,  making  the 
cases  very  dusty  and  dirty.  Each  compositor  should  supply  himself 
with  a  small  brush,  suitable  for  the  hands,  to  be  used  each  time  he 
washes.     A  private  drinking  cup  is  desirable. 

In  acute  cases  of  lead  poisoning  the  treatment  consists  in  the  admin- 
istration of  alkaline  carbonates,  soap,  soluble  sulphates,  sodium  chloride, 
etc.,  washing  out  the  stomach  with  large  drafts  of  water,  etc.  Alum 
has  been  given,  and  at  one  time  was  considered  almost  a  specific. 
Sweet  oil  and  castor  oil  will  be  found  useful.  Milk  should  be  taken 
in  large  quantities.  The  idea  is  first  to  combat  the  symptoms  and  then 
eliminate  the  lead.  Opium  can  be  given  for  pain.  Warm  sulphureted 
baths  are  very  beneficial.  They  can  be  made  by  dissolving  4  ounces 
of  potassium  sulphide  in  30  gallons  of  water  in  a  wooden  tub.  These 
baths  discolor  the  skin,  from  the  formation  of  lead  sulphide,  and  should 
be  repeated  every  few  days  until  this  effect  ceases.  During  each  bath 
the  patient  should  be  well  washed  with  soap  and  water  to  remove 
discoloration. 


122 

The  various  kinds  of  typesetting  machines  all  have  a  melting  pot 
attached  to  each  machine,  and  where  many  are  in  use,  unless  there  is 
plenty  of  pure  air  constantly  entering  the  room  and  perfect  ventila- 
tion provided,  the  fumes  from  each  pot  should  be  conducted  by  pipes 
to  a  chamber  in  which  a  vacuum  is  present,  so  that  the  fumes  may 
be  instantly  removed  and  carried  out  into  the  atmosphere.  The  virtue 
of  the  machine  lies  in  the  fact,  so  far  as  health  is  concerned,  in  the 
absence  of  dust,  and  with  the  additional  advantage  on  the  part  of  the 
operator  that  he  does  not  lay  himself  open  to  exposure  in  handling  the 
metal  to  so  great  a  degree  as  in  the  case  of  the  hand  compositor. 

There  are  other  alloys  that  would  take  the  place  of  lead  in  type 
metal,  but  owing  to  the  excessive  cost  and  high  fusing  point  their  use 
is  not  practical. 

Dr.  Manning's  Method  for  the  Collection,  Cleaning  and  Disinfection 
of  Spittoons. — From  a  sanitary  point  of  view  the  collection,  cleaning, 
and  disinfection  of  the  spittoons  in  the  Government  Printing  Office  is  a 
matter  of  considerable  importance.  This  will  be  readily  understood 
when  it  is  remembered  that  there  are  over  4,500  persons  engaged  during 
the  24  hours,  all  working  in  eight-hour  shifts,  and  that  no  fewer  than 
1,200  cuspidors  must  be  cleaned  at  the  end  of  each  shift. 

The  method  now  being  installed  under  Dr.  Manning's  direction 
effects  this  without  direct  digital  contact.  It  consists  in  a  central 
sterilizing  chamber  situated  in  the  basement  of  the  Printing  Office,  with 
a  cement  floor,  graded  toward  the  center  and  made  up  of  two  inclines 
and  six  shallow  gutters,  i.  e.,  concavities  or  semilunar  grooves  in  the 
cement  floor  under  each  iron  longitudinal  rack  extending  lengthwise 
of  the  room,  there  being  six  of  such  frames  or  racks,  which  consist  of 
simply  i-inch  angle-iron  strips  f^-inch  in  thickness,  arranged  in  tiers, 
13  inches  apart,  from  which  hang  suspended  at  intervals  of  9  inches 
steel-wire  spring  clutches,  secured  by  a  nut  and  bolt  through  the  eye  of 
clutch  and  bolted  firmly  to  the  underside  of  angle  iron.  All  edges, 
angles,  corners,  and  returns  of  the  floor  are  to  be  well  rounded  and 
the  base  of  each  of  the  four  walls  are  to  have  12-inch  "sanitary  bases" 
in  order  that  all  parts  of  the  room  may  be  self  cleansing  and  draining. 
The  walls  of  the  sterilizing  chamber  are  composed  of  white,  glazed, 
vitrified  brick. 

The  wire  clutch  is  shaped  somewhat  liked  an  inverted  letter  U,  and 
grasps  the  cuspidor  around  the  constricted  portion  or  neck  when  the 
latter  is  pressed  against  the  orifice  or  bell-shaped  opening  at  the  bot- 
tom of  the  spring.  This  spring  permits  both  expansion  and  contrac- 
tion around  the  neck  of  the  cuspidor,  and  has  a  sufficient  grasp  to 
hold  the  latter  firmly  in  place  while  it  is  subjected  to  internal  and 


123 

external  washing  with  a  stream  of  hot  water  from  a  hose.     After 
thorough  cleansing,  the  cuspidors  are  subjected  to  the  action  of  super- 
heated steam,  hy  which  all   forms  of  vegetable  and   organic  li: 
killed,  even  the  most  resistant  spore-bearing  disease  germs. 

The  cuspidors  are  collected  in  the  workrooms  by  a  mechanical 
device  or  holder  so  designed  as  to  clutch  and  "nest"  at  one  time  five 
of  the  soiled  cuspidors,  one  above  the  other,  and  are  carried  directly, 
by  means  of  the  holder,  to  specially  designed  wooden,  zinc-lined  box 
trucks  with  detachable  sides.  Each  truck  is  capable  of  holding  175 
cuspidors  for  transmission  to  the  sterilizing  chamber.  As  five  soiled 
cuspidors  are  taken  to  the  truck  they  are  replaced  by  five  sterilized 
cuspidors  picked  up  and  distributed  by  the  same  mechanism,  all  of 
which  is  accomplished  by  the  use  of  one  hand  only  of  the  operator. 

After  the  trucks  are  filled  they  are  transmitted  from  the  respective 
floors  to  the  basement  on  a  freight  elevator  and  wheeled  directly  into 
the  sterilizing  chamber.  Here  one  of  the  sides  of  the  box  truck  is 
removed,  and  the  operator,  by  the  use  of  another  specially  designed 
forcep,  reaches  out  and  grasps  the  lip  of  a  cuspidor,  lifts  it  free,  and 
with  a  pronation  or  twist  of  the  wrist  empties  the  vessel.  At  the  same 
time,  with  an  upward  movement,  still  grasping  the  forceps,  the  con- 
stricted part  of  the  cuspidor  is  brought  against  the  bottom  of  the  wire 
clutch,  which  receives  and  holds  it  in  the  manner  already  described. 

When  the  racks  have  been  thus  filled,  the  operator  faces  the  front  of 
the  racks  or  mouths  of  the  cuspidors  and  directs  a  stream  of  boiling 
hot  water  into  and  against  the  cuspidors.  The  same  method  is  pur- 
sued from  the  rear  of  each  respective  rack,  and  thus  a  large  number  of 
cuspidors  are  quickly  cleaned  in  a  thorough  and  absolutely  sanitary 
manner. 

As  soon  as  this  operation  has  been  completed,  the  floor  is  thoroughly 
flushed  with  hot  water  and  all  foreign  matter  is  carried  by  means  of 
two  centrally  located  waste  outlets  protected  by  a  back-pressure  valve 
into  the  sewer. 

The  door  of  the  sterilizing  chamber  is  built  on  the  order  of  a  bulk- 
head door  of  a  steamer  and  is  closed  with  a  swivel  "keeper"'  and  is 
steam  tight. 

For  economic  reasons  an  exhaust  steam  pipe  is  tapped  and  a  branch 
carried  into  the  top  of  the  sterilizing  chamber.  This  pipe  has  a  number 
of  apertures  on  the  underside  and  quickly  fills  the  room  with  steam, 
coming  from  above  downward. 

The  sterilization  is  continued  for  one  hour  at  a  temperature  of 
about  100  degrees  centigrade.  At  the  expiration  of  this  period  the 
steam  is  turned  off  and  the  air  shaft  leading  to  roof  opened  for  the 
escape  of  steam  and  to  aid  condensation,  thus  quickly  ridding  the  room 


124 

of  all  vapor.  The  door  of  chamber  is  then  opened,  and  the  operator, 
after  the  cuspidors  have  cooled,  plucks  them  from  the  rack  with  his 
hands  and  proceeds  to  place  layer  after  layer  in  trucks  until  the  latter 
are  full. 

When  a  layer  is  laid  in  a  truck,  he  pours  in  a  solution  made  of 
bichloride  of  mercury,  J.%  grains ;  citric  acid,  J.J  grains,  to  each  liter 
of  water,  colored  with  fuchsine  to  differentiate  the  solution.  This  gives 
a  strength,  approximately,  of  1 :2000,  sufficient  to  destroy  whatever 
infectious  germs  may  find  their  way  into  the  cuspidors  through  expec- 
toration or  otherwise. 

The  bichloride  is  used  for  its  germicidal  power,  while  the  citric  acid 
is  added  to  retard  the  coagulation  of  the  albumin  in  the  saliva  and  ex- 
pectoration and  thus  render  the  action  of  the  bichloride  of  mercury 
more  potent. 

The  entire  cost  of  the  chemical  disinfectants  named  amounts  to  less 
than  $12  per  annum. 

The  cuspidors  are  specially  designed  to  permit  of  easy  cleaning  and 
self-draining  largely  on  account  of  the  character  of  the  curves  em- 
ployed. Angles  which  would  interfere  with  the  cleaning  process  have 
been  avoided,  and  the  stream  of  water  will  readily  reach  all  the  inter- 
nal surfaces.  The  constriction  or  neck  is  sufficiently  wide  to  permit  the 
stream  of  the  hose  to  enter  with  full  force.  A  certain  amount  of  con- 
striction at  the  neck  seemed  desirable  to  hide  the  contents  of  cuspidor 
when  in  use.  They  were  designed,  however,  with  the  special  object  of 
easy  cleaning  and  without  direct  digital  contact,  because  it  would 
seem  almost  inhuman  to  ask  a  cleaner  to  place  his  hand,  containing 
even  a  sponge,  in  the  ordinary  stock  cuspidor  and  wash  the  interior  in 
a  thorough  and  sanitary  manner.  All  of  this  repulsive  work  has  been 
avoided,  so  that  by  the  new  method  the  operator  does  not  touch  the 
cuspidor  with  his  hands  until  he  plucks  the  washed  and  sterilized  cus- 
pidor from  the  rack  and  places  it  in  the  truck. 

Hard  vitrified  china  ware  has  been  used  to  construct  the  cuspidors, 
as  this  is  the  only  material  that  will  withstand  the  corrosive  action  of 
bichloride  of  mercury  and  at  the  same  time  present  a  smooth  surface 
for  sanitary  cleansing. 

Approximately  about  3,800  barrels  of  sawdust  are  used  each  year 
for  cuspidors  in  the  Government  Printing  Office,  at  a  cost  of  about 
$100  per  month.  While,  of  course,  this  item  will  be  saved,  together 
with  the  cost  of  handling  and  carting  away  of  the  foul  and  polluted 
sawdust,  the  main  object  has  been  to  reduce  to  a  minimum  the  danger 
of  infection  through  tuberculosis  sputa  among  the  employees.1 

JA11  of  the  mechanical  devices  used  in  the  above  method  have  been  designed 
by  Dr.  Manning. 


125 

The  report  of  Dr.  Manning,  in  charge  of  tin-  Sanitary  Division  oi 
the  Government  Printing  (  )fliee,  shows  that  of  4,556  employees  in  the 
building  from  January  1st,  1906,  to  February  29th,  1908,  ',153  em- 
ployees received  treatment  at  the  Emergency  Room,  595  were  medical 

cases  inclusive  of  9  cases  of  lead-colic.     Of  these  516  resumed  work, 
j6  were  sent  home  for  treatment  and   3   died.     Of  the   558   sir 
cases,  517  resumed  work  and  41  were  sent  home  for  treatment.     The 
Emergency  Department  is  well  equipped  and  the  results  have  in  every 
way  justified  its  establishment. 


APPENDIX— REGULATION  OF  DANGEROUS  TRADES  [N  ENGLAND. 

(In  addition  to  the  general  provisions  regarding  ventilation,  etc.,  which  apply 
to  all  manufacturing  establishments,  the  English  Factory  and  Workshop  Act 
(1901)  contains  a  chapter  of  Special  Provisions  for  dangerous  and  unhealthy 
industries,  which  is  reprinted  below,  together  with  the  Special  Rules  and  Regu- 
lations issued  by  the  government  officials  in  accordance  with  the  grant  of  author- 
ity therein  made.) 

FACTORY  AND   WORKSHOP   ACT,   1901. 

Part   IV. — Dangerous   and  Unhealthy   Industries. 

(0   Special  provisions. 

Section  73.  (1)  Every  medical  practitioner  attending  on  or  called  in  to  visit 
a  patient  whom  he  believes  to  be  suffering  from  lead,  phosphorus,  arsenical 
or  mercurial  poisoning,  or  anthrax,  contracted  in  any  factory  or  workshop,  shall 
(unless  the  notice  required  by  this  subsection  has  been  previously  sent)  send  to 
the  chief  inspector  of  factories  at  the  home  office,  London,  a  notice  stating  the 
name  and  full  postal  address  of  the  patient  and  the  disease  from  which,  in  the 
opinion  of  the  medical  practitioner,  the  patient  is  suffering,  and  shall  be  entitled 
in  respect  of  every  notice  sent  in  pursuance  of  this  section  to  a  fee  of  two 
shillings  and  sixpence,  to  be  paid  as  part  of  the  expenses  incurred  by  the  secre- 
tary of  state  in  the  execution  of  this  act. 

(2)  If  any  medical  practitioner,  when  required  by  this  section  to  send  a  notice, 
fails  forthwith  to  send  the  same,  he  shall  be  liable  to  a  fine  not  exceeding  forty 
shillings.  , 

(3)  Written  notice  of  every  case  of  lead,  phosphorus,  arsenical  or  mercurial 
poisoning,  or  anthrax,  occurring  in  a  factory  or  workshop,  shall  forthwith  be 
sent  to  the  inspector  and  to  the  certifying  surgeon  for  the  district;  and  the  pro- 
visions of  this  act  with  respect  to  accidents  shall  apply  to  any  such  case  in  like 
manner  as  to  any  such  accident  as  is  mentioned  in  those  provisions. 

(4)  The  secretary  of  state  may,  by  special  order,  apply  the  provisions  of  thii 
section  to  any  other  disease  occurring  in  a  factory  or  workshop,  and  thereupon 
this  section  and  the  provisions  referred  to  therein  shall  apply  accordingly. 

Sec.  74.  If  in  a  factory  or  workshop  where  grinding,  glazing,  or  polishing  on 
a  wheel,  or  any  process  is  carried  on  by  which  dust,  or  any  gas.  vapor,  or  other 
impurity,  is  generated  and  inhaled  by  the  workers  to  an  injurious  extent,  it 
appears  to  an  inspector  that  such  inhalation  could  be  to  a  great  extent  prevented 
by  the  use  of  a  fan  or  other  mechanical  means,  the  inspector  may  direct  that 
a  fan  or  other  mechanical  means  of  a  proper  construction  for  preventing  such 
inhalation  be  provided  within  a  reasonable  time,  and  if  the  same  is  not  pro- 
vided, maintained  and  used,  the  factory  or  workshop  shall  be  deemed  not  to  be 
kept  in  conformity  with  this  act. 


126 

Sec.  75.  (1)  In  every  factory  or  workshop  where  lead,  arsenic  or  any  other 
poisonous  substance  is  used,  suitable  washing  conveniences  must  be  provided  for 
the  use  of  the  persons  employed  in  any  department  where  such  substances  are 
used. 

(2)  In  any  factory  or  workshop  where  lead,  arsenic,  or  other  poisonous  sub- 
stance is  so  used  as  to  give  rise  to  dust  or  fumes,  a  person  shall  not  be  allowed 
to  take  a  meal  or  to  remain  during  the  times  allowed  to  him  for  meals,  in  any 
room  in  which  any  such  substance  is  used,  and  suitable  provision  shall  be  made 
for  enabling  the  persons  employed  in  such  rooms  to  take  their  meals  elsewhere 
in  the  factory  or  workshop. 

(3)  A  factory  or  workshop  in  which  there  is  a  contravention  of  this  section 
shall  be  deemed  not  to  be  kept  in  conformity  with  this  act. 

Sec.  76.  (1)  A  woman,  young  person  or  child  must  not  be  employed  in  any 
part  of  a  factory  in  which  wet-spinning  is  carried  on,  unless  sufficient  means  are 
employed  and  continued  for  protecting  the  workers  from  being  wetted,  and 
where  hot  water  is  used  for  preventing  the  escape  of  steam  into  the  room  occu- 
pied by  the  workers. 

(2)  A  factory  in  which  there  is  a  contravention  of  this  section  shall  be  deemed 
not  to  be  kept  in  conformity  with  this  act. 

Sec.  77.   (1)  In  the  part  of  a  factory  or  workshop  in  which  there  is  carried  on — 

(a)  the  process  of  silvering  of  mirrors  by  the  mercurial  process;  or 

(b)  the  process  of  making  white  lead, 

a  young  person  or  child  must  not  be  employed.  , 

(2)  In  the  part  of  a  factory  in  which  the  process  of  melting  or  annealing  glass 
is  carried  on  a  female,  young  person,  or  a  child  must  not  be  employed. 

(3)  In  a  factory  or  workshop  in  which  there  is  carried  on — 

(a)  the  making  or  finishing  of  bricks  or  tiles  not  being  ornamental  tiles;  or 
(&)  the  making  or  finishing  of  salt, 
a  girl  under  the  age  of  sixteen  years  must  not  be  employed. 

(4)  In  the  part  of  a  factory  or  workshop  in  which  there  is  carried  on — 

(a)  any  dry  grinding  in  the  metal  trade;  or 

(b)  the  dipping  of  lucifer  matches, 
a  child  must  not  be  employed. 

(5)  Notice  of  a  prohibition  contained  in  this  section  must  be  affixed  in  the 
factory  or  workshop  to  which  it  applies. 

Sec.  78.  (1)  A  woman,  young  person  or  child  must  not  be  allowed  to  take  a 
meal,  or  to  remain  during  the  time  allowed  for  meals  in  the  following  factories 
or  workshops,  or  parts  of  factories  or  workshops ;  that  is  to  say, — 

(a)  in  the  case  of  glass  works,  in  any  part  in  which  the  materials  are  mixed; 
and 

(6)  in  the  case  of  glass  works  where  flint  glass  is  made,  in  any  part  in  which 
the  work  of  grinding,  cutting,  or  polishing  is  carried  on;  and, 

(c)  in  the  case  of  lucifer-match  works,  in  any  part  in  which  any  manufactur- 
ing process  or  handicraft  (except  that  of  cutting  the  wood)  is  usually  carried  on; 
and 

(d)  in  the  case  of  earthenware  works,  in  any  part  known  or  used  as  dippers 
house,  dippers  drying  room,  or  china  scouring  room. 

(2)  If  a  woman,  young  person,  or  child  is  allowed  to  take  a  meal  or  to  remain 
during  the  time  allowed  for  meals  in  a  factory  or  workshop  or  part  thereof  in 
contravention  of  this  section,  the  woman,  young  person,  or  child  shall  be  deemed 
to  be  employed  contrary  to  the  provisions  of  this  act. 

(3)  Notice  of  the  prohibition  of  this  section  shall  be  affixed  in  every  factory  or 
workshop  to  which  it  applies. 

(4)  Where  it  appears  (x)  to  the  secretary  of  state  that  by  reason  of  the  nature 
of  the  process  in  any  class  of  factories  or  workshops  or  parts  thereof  not  named 
in  this  section  the  taking  of  meals  therein  is  specially  injurious  to  health,  he 
may,  if  he  thinks  fit,  by  special  order,  extend  the  prohibition  in  this  section  to 
the  class  of  factories  or  workshops  or  parts  thereof. 

(5)  If  the  prohibition  in  this  section  is  proved  to  the  satisfaction  of  the  sec- 
retary of  state  to  be  no  longer  necessary  for  the  protection  of  the  health  of 
women,  young  persons,  and  children,  in  any  class  of  factories  or  workshops 
or  parts  thereof  to  which  it  has  been  so  extended,  he  may,  by  special  order, 
rescind  the  order  of  extension,  without  prejudice  to  the  subsequent  making  of 
another  order. 

JFor  orders  extending  the  prohibition  in  this  section,  see  post. 


127 

(u)   Regulations  for  dangerous  trades. 

Sec.  79.  Where  the  secretary  of  state  is  satisfied  thai  any  manufacture,  ma- 
chinery, plant,  process,  or  description  of  manual  labor,  u  <<l  in  foctoriei  or  work- 
shops, is  dangerous  or  injurious  to  health  or  dangerous  to  life  or  limb,  either  K"'n- 
erally  or  in  the  case  of  woinni,  children,  or  any  other  1  la  oi  DCI  IOIM,  lit 
may  certify  that  manufacture,  machinery,  plant,  process,  or  description  of 
manual  labor,  to  be  dangerous;  and  thereupon  the  secretary  of  state  may,  sub- 
ject to  the  provisions  of  this  act,  make  such  regulations  as  appear  to  him  to  be 
reasonably  practicable,  and  to  meet  the  necessity  of  the  case. 

Sec.  80.  (1)  Before  the  secretary  of  state  makes  any  regulations  under  this 
act,  he  shall  publish,  in  such  manner  as  he  may  think  best  adapted  for  informing 
persons  affected,  notice  of  the  proposal  to  make  the  regulations,  and  of  the 
place  where  copies  of  the  draft  regulations  may  be  obtained,  and  of  the  time 
(which  shall  be  not  less  than  twenty-one  days)  within  which  any  objection  made 
with  respect  to  the  draft  regulations  by  or  on  behalf  of  persons  affected  must  be 
sent  to  the  secretary  of  state. 

(2)  Every  objection  must  be  in  writing  and  state — 

(a)  the  draft  regulations  or  portions  of  draft  regulations  objected  to; 

(b)  the  specific  grounds  of  objection;  and 

(c)  the  omissions,  additions,  or  modifications  asked  for. 

(3)  The  secretary  of  state  shall  consider  any  objection  made  by  or  on  behalf 
of  any  persons  appearing  to  him  to  be  affected  which  is  sent  to  him  within  the 
required  time,  and  he  may,  if  he  thinks  fit,  amend  the  draft  regulations,  and 
shall  then  cause  the  amended  draft  to  be  dealt  with  in  like  manner  as  an  original 
draft. 

(4)  Where  the  secretary  of  state  does  not  amend  or  withdraw  any  draft  regu- 
lations to  which  any  objection  has  been  made,  then  (unless  the  objection  either 
is  withdrawn  or  appears  to  him  to  be  frivolous)  he  shall,  before  making  the  reg- 
ulations, direct  an  inquiry  to  be  held  in  the  manner  hereinafter  provided. 

Sec.  81.  (1)  The  secretary  of  state  may  appoint  a  competent  person  to  hold  an 
inquiry  with  regard  to  any  draft  regulations,  and  to  report  to  him  thereon. 

(2)  The  inquiry  shall  be  held  in  public,  and  the  chief  inspector  and  any  ob- 
jector and  any  other  person  who,  in  the  opinion  of  the  person  holding  the  inquiry, 
is  affected  by  the  draft  regulations,  may  appear  at  the  inquiry  either  in  person 
or  by  counsel,  solicitor,  or  agent.  , 

(3)  The  witnesses  on  the  inquiry  may,  if  the  person  holding  it  thinks  fit,  be 
examined  on  oath.  ,  ,  ,  , 

(4)  Subject  as  aforesaid,  the  inquiry  and  all  proceedings  preliminary  and 
incidental  thereto  shall  be  conducted  in  accordance  with  rules  made  by  the  sec- 
retary of  state.  , 

(5)  The  fee  to  be  paid  to  the  person  holding  the  inquiry  shall  be  such  as  the 
secretary  of  state  may  direct  and  shall  be  deemed  to  be  part  of  the  expenses  of 
the  secretary  of  state  in  the  execution  of  this  act.  ,  , 

Sec.  82.  (1)  The  regulations  made  under  the  foregoing  provisions  of  this 
act  may  apply  to  all  the  factories  and  workshops  in  which  the  manufacture, 
machinery,  plant,  process,  or  description  of  manual  labor,  certified  to  be  danger- 
ous is  used  (whether  existing  at  the  time  when  the  regulations  are  made  or 
afterwards  established)  or  to  any  specified  class  of  such  factories  or  workshop. 
They  may  provide  for  the  exemption  of  any  specified  class  or  factories  or  work- 
shops either  absolutely  or  subject  to  conditions. 

(2)  The  regulations  may  apply  to  tenement  factories  and  tenement  workshops, 
and  in  such  case  may  impose  duties  on  occupiers  who  do  not  employ  any  person, 
and  on  owners. 

(3)  No  person  shall  be  precluded  by  any  agreement  from  doing,  or  be  liable 
under  any  agreement  to  any  penalty  or  forfeiture  for  doing,  such  acts  as  may 
be  necessary  in  order  to  comply  with  the  provisions  of  any  regulation  made 
under  this  act. 

Sec.  83.  Regulations  made  under  the  foregoing  provisions  of  this  act  may, 
among  other  things — 

(o)  prohibit  the  employment  of,  or  modify  or  limit  the  period  of  employment 


128 

of,  all  persons  or  any  class  of  persons  in  any  manufacture,  machinery,  plant, 
process,  or  description  of  manual  labor  certified  to  be  dangerous;  and 

(b)  prohibit,  limit,  or  control  the  use  of  any  material  or  process;  and 

(c)  modify  or  extend  any  special  regulations  for  any  class  of  factories  or 
workshops  contained  in  this  act. 

Sec.  84.  Regulations  made  under  the  foregoing  provisions  of  this  act  shall  be 
laid  as  soon  as  possible  before  both  Houses  of  Parliament,  and  if  either  House 
within  the  next  forty  days  after  the  regulations  have  been  laid  before  the  House, 
resolve,  that  all  or  any  of  the  regulations  ought  to  be  annulled,  the  regulations 
shall,  after  the  date  of  resolution,  be  of  no  effect,  without  prejudice  to  the  validity 
of  anything  done  in  the  meantime  thereunder  or  to  the  making  of  any  new  regula- 
tions. If  one  or  more  of  a  set  of  regulations  are  annulled,  the  secretary  of  state 
may,  if  he  thinks  fit,  withdraw  the  whole  set. 

Sec.  85.  (1)  If  any  occupier,  owner,  or  manager,  who  is  bound  to  observe  any 
regulation  under  this  act,  acts  in  contravention  of  or  fails  to  comply  with  the 
regulation,  he  shall  be  liable  for  each  offense  to  a  fine  not  exceeding  ten  pounds 
[$48.67]  and,  in  the  case  of  a  continuing  offense,  to  a  fine  not  exceeding  two 
pounds  [$9.73]  for  every  day  during  which  the  offense  continues  after  conviction 
therefor. 

(2)  If  any  person  other  than  an  occupier,  owner,  or  manager,  who  is  bound  to 
observe  any  regulation  under  this  act,  acts  in  contravention  of,  or  fails  to  comply 
with,  the  regulation,  he  shall  be  liable  for  each  offense  to  a  fine  not  exceeding 
two  pounds  [$9.73]  and  the  occupier  of  the  factory  or  workshop  shall  also  be 
liable  to  a  fine  not  exceeding  ten  pounds  [$48.67],  unless  he  proves  that  he  has 
taken  all  reasonable  means  by  publishing,  and  to  the  best  of  his  power  enforcing, 
the  regulations  to  prevent  the  contravention  or  noncompliance. 

Sec.  86.  (1)  Notice  of  any  regulations  having  been  made  under  the  foregoing 
provisions  of  this  act,  and  of  the  place  where  copies  of  them  can  be  purchased, 
shall  be  published  in  the  London,  Edinburgh,  and  Dublin  Gazettes. 

(2)  Printed  copies  of  all  regulations  for  the  time  being  in  force  under  this  act 
in  any  factory  or  workshop  shall  be  kept  posted  up  in  legible  characters  in  con- 
spicuous places  in  the  factory  or  workshop  where  they  may  be  conveniently  read 
by  the  persons  employed.  In  a  factory  or  workshop  in  Wales  or  Monmouthshire 
the  regulations  shall  be  posted  up  in  the  Welsh  language  also. 

(3)  A  printed  copy  of  all  such  regulations  shall  be  given  by  the  occupier  to 
any  person  affected  thereby  on  his  or  her  application. 

(4)  If  the  occupier  of  any  factory  or  workshop  fails  to  comply  with  any  pro- 
vision of  this  section  as  to  posting  up  or  giving  copies,  he  shall  be  liable  to  a 
fine  not  exceeding  ten  pounds   [$49.67]. 

(5)  Every  person  who  pulls  down,  injures,  or  defaces  any  regulations  posted 
up  in  pursuance  of  this  act,  or  any  notice  posted  up  in  pursuance  of  the  regula- 
tions, shall  be  liable  to  a  fine  not  exceeding  five  pounds  [$24.33]. 

(6)  Regulations  for  the  time  being  in  force  under  this  act  shall  be  judicially 
noticed. 

SPECIAL   RULES   AND   REGULATIONS. 
White  lead  factories. 
Red  and  orange  lead  works. 
Yellow  lead  works. 
Lead  smelting  works. 
Factories  using  yellow  chromate  of  lead. 
Earthenware  and  china  works. 
Electric  accumulator  factories   (regulations). 
Iron-plate  enameling  works  (using  lead,  arsenic,  or  antimony). 
Tinning  and  enameling  works   (using  lead  or  arsenic). 
Paint  and  color  works  (extraction  of  arsenic). 
Brass  and  compound  metal  mixing  or  casting  shops. 
Chemical  works. 

Bichromate  or  chromate  of  potassium  or  sodium  works. 
Explosive  works  (using  di-nitro-benzole). 
Vulcanized  india-rubber  works   (using  bisulphide  of  carbon). 
Lucifer  match  factories  using  white  or  yellow  phosphorus. 
Felt  hat  factories    (regulations). 


129 

Handling  of  dry  and   drysallcd   hides  and     I  in  .    imported    from   A'.ia 

Wool  and  hair  sorting  (regulations). 

Flax   and  low  spinning  and   weaving    ( regulations). 

File  cutting  by  hand  (regulations), 

Bottling  of  aerated  water, 

Spinning  by  self-acting   mules    ( regulations). 

Loading  goods  on  docks  and   wharves    (regulation1  ;. 

Use  of  factory  engines  and  cars   (regulations). 

White  Lead  Pactobtj  . 

(Form  247 — February,  1903.) 

In  these  rules  "person  employed  in  a  lead  process"  means  a  person  who  is  em- 
ployed in  any  work  or  process  involving  exposure  to  white  lead,  or  to  lead  or  lead 
compounds  used  in  its  manufacture,  or  who  is  admitted  to  any  room  or  part  of 
the  factory  where  such  process  is  carried  on. 

Any  approval  given  by  the  chic  I'  inspector  of  factories  in  pursuance  of  rules  2, 
4,  6,  9,  or  12  shall  be  given  in  writing,  and  may  at  any  time  be  revoked  by  notice 
in  writing  signed  by  him. 

Duties  of  occupiers. 

1.  On  and  after  July  1st,  1899,  no  part  of  a  white  lead  factory  shall  be  con- 
structed, structurally  altered,  or  newly  used,  for  any  process  in  which  white  lead 
is  manufactured  or  prepared  for  sale,  unless  the  plans  have  previously  been  sub- 
mitted to  and  approved  in  writing  by  the  chief  inspector  of  factories. 

2.  (a)  Every  stack  shall  be  provided  with  a  standpipe  and  movable  hose,  and 
an  adequate  supply  of  water  distributed  by  a  hose. 

(b)  Every  white  bed  shall,  on  the  removal  of  the  covering  boards,  be  effect- 
ually damped  by  the  means  mentioned  above. 

Where  it  is  shown  to  the  satisfaction  of  the  chief  inspector  of  factories  that 
there  is  no  available  public  water  service  in  the  district,  it  shall  be  a  sufficient 
compliance  with  this  rule  if  each  white  bed  is,  on  the  removal  of  the  covering 
boards,  effectually  damped  by  means  of  a  watering  can. 

3.  Where  white  lead  is  made  by  the  chamber  process,  the  chamber  shall  be 
kept  moist  while  the  process  is  in  operation,  and  the  corrosions  shall  be  effect- 
ually moistened  before  the  chamber  is  emptied. 

4.  (a)   Corrosions  shall  not  be  carried  except  in  trays  of  impervious  material. 

(b)  No  person  shall  be  allowed  to  carry  on  his  head  or  shoulder  a  tray  of 
corrosions  which  has  been  allowed  to  rest  directly  upon  the  (orrosions,  or  upon 
any  surface  where  there  is  white  lead. 

(c)  All  corrosions  before  being  put  into  the  rollers  or  wasbbecks,  shall  be 
effectually  damped,  either  by  dipping  the  tray  containing  rhem  in  a  trough  of 
water  or  by  some  other  method  approved  by  the  chief  inspector  of  factories. 

5.  The  flooring  round  the  rollers  shall  either  be  of  smooth  cement  or  be  cov- 
ered with  sheet  lead,  and  shall  be  kept  constantly  moist. 

6.  On  and  after  January  1st,   1901,  except  as  hereinafter  provided — 

(a)  Every  stove  shall  have  a  window,  or  windows,  with  a  total  area  of  not 
not  less  than  8  square  feet,  made  to  open,  and  so  placed  as  to  admit  of  effectual 
through  ventilation. 

(&)  In  no  stove  shall  bowls  be  placed  on  a  rack  which  is  more  than  10  feet 
from  the  floor. 

(c)  Each  bowl  shall  rest  upon  the  rack  and  not  upon  another  bowl. 

(d)  No  stove  shall  be  entered  for  the  purpose  of  drawing  until  the  temper- 
ature at  a  height  of  5  feet  from  the  floor  has  fallen  either  to  ~o°  F.,  or  to  a  point 
not  more  than  io°  F.  above  the  temperature  of  the  air  outside. 

(e)  In  drawing  any  stove  or  part  of  a  stove  there  shall  not  be  more  than  one 
stage  or  standing  place  above  the  level  of  the  floor. 

Provided  that  if  the  chief  inspector  approves  of  any  other  means  of  ventilating 
a  stove,  as  allowing  of  effectual  through  ventilation,  such  means  may  be  adopted, 
notwithstanding  paragraph  (a)  of  this  rule;  and  if  he  approves  of  any  other 
method  of  setting  and  drawing  the  stoves,  as  effectually  preventing  white  lead 


130 

from  falling  upon  any  worker,  such  method  may  be  followed,  notwithstanding 
paragraphs  (b)  and  (c)  of  this  rule. 

7.  No  person  shall  be  employed  in  drawing  Dutch  stoves  on  more  than  two 
days  in  any  week. 

8.  No  dry  white  lead  shall  be  deposited  in  any  place  that  is  not  provided  either 
with  a  cover  or  with  a  fan  effectually  removing  the  dust  from  the  worker. 

9.  On  and  after  January  1st,  1000,  the  packing  of  dry  white  lead  shall  be  done 
only  under  conditions  which  secure  the  effectual  removal  of  dust,  either  by  ex- 
haust fans  or  by  other  efficient  means  approved  in  each  case  by  the  chief  in- 
spector of  factories. 

This  rule  shall  not  apply  where  the  packing  is  effected  by  mechanical  means  en- 
tirely closed  in. 

10.  The  floor  of  any  place  where  packing  of  dry  white  lead  is  carried  on  shall 
be  of  cement,  or  of  stone  set  in  cement. 

11.  No  woman  shall  be  employed  or  allowed  in  the  white  beds,  rollers  wash- 
becks,  or  stoves,  or  in  any  place  where  dry  white  lead  is  packed,  or  in  other 
work  exposing  her  to  white  lead  dust. 

12.  (a)  A  duly  qualified  medical  practitioner  (in  these  rules  referred  to  as 
the  "appointed  surgeon")  shall  be  appointed  by  the  occupier  for  each  factory, 
such  appointment  to  be  subject  to  the  approval  of  the  chief  inspector. 

(b)  No  person  shall  be  employed  in  a  lead  process  for  more  than  a  week  with- 
out a  certificate  of  fitness  granted  after  examination  by  the  appointed  surgeon. 

(c)  Every  person  employed  in  a  lead  process  shall  be  examined  once  a  week 
by  the  appointed  surgeon,  who  shall  have  power  to  order  suspension  from  em- 
ployment in  any  place  or  process. 

(d)  No  person  after  such  suspension  shall  be  employed  in  a  lead  process 
without  the  written  sanction  of  the  appointed  surgeon. 

(e)  A  register  in  a  form  approved  by  the  chief  inspector  of  factories  shall  be 
kept,  and  shall  contain  a  list  of  all  persons  employed  in  lead  processes.  The 
appointed  surgeon  will  enter  in  the  register  the  dates  and  results  of  his  ex- 
aminations of  the  persons  employed,  and  particulars  of  any  directions  given  by 
him.  The  register  shall  be  produced  at  any  time  when  required  by  H.  M. 
inspectors  of  factories  or  by  the  certifying  surgeon  or  by  the  appointed  surgeon. 

13.  Upon  any  person  employed  in  a  lead  process  complaining  of  being  unwell, 
the  occupier  shall,  with  the  least  possible  delay,  give  an  order  upon  a  duly 
qualified  medical  practitioner. 

14.  The  occupier  shall  provide  and  maintain  sufficient  and  suitable  respirators, 
overalls,  and  head-coverings,  and  shall  cause  them  to  be  worn  as  directed  in 
rule  29. 

At  the  end  of  every  day's  work  they  shall  be  collected  and  kept  in  proper 
custody  in  a  suitable  place  set  apart  for  the  purpose. 

They  shall  be  thoroughly  washed  or  renewed  every  week;  and  those  which 
have  been  used  in  the  stoves,  and  all  respirators,  shall  be  washed  or  renewed 
daily. 

15.  The  occupier  shall  provide  and  maintain  a  dining-room  and  a  cloakroom  in 
which  workers  can  deposit  clothing  put  off  during  working  hours. 

16.  No  person  employed  in  a  lead  process  shall  be  allowed  to  prepare  or  partake 
of  any  food  or  drink  except  in  the  dining-room  or  kitchen. 

17.  A  supply  of  a  suitable  sanitary  drink,  to  be  approved  by  the  appointed  sur- 
geon shall  be  kept  for  the  use  of  the  workers. 

18.  The  occupier  shall  provide  and  maintain  a  lavatory  for  the  use  of  the 
workers,  with  soap,  nailbrushes,  and  at  least  one  lavatory  basin  for  every  five 
persons  employed.  Each  such  basin  shall  be  fitted  with  a  waste  pipe.  There 
shall  be  a  constant  supply  of  hot  and  cold  water  laid  on,  except  where  there 
is  no  available  public  water  service,  in  which  case  the  provision  of  hot  and 
cold  water  shall  be  such  as  shall  satisfy  the  inspector  in  charge  of  the  district. 

The  lavatory  shall  be  thoroughly  cleaned  and  supplied  with  clean  towels  after 
every  meal. 

There  shall,  in  addition,  be  means  of  washing  in  close  proximity  to  the  workers 
of  each  department,  if  required  by  notice  in  writing  from  the  inspector  in 
charge  of  the  district. 

There  shall  be  facilities,  to  the  satisfaction  of  the  inspector  in  charge  of  the 
district,  for  the  workers  to  wash  out  their  mouths. 


I3i 

i').  Before  each  meal,  and  before  the  end  of  the  day's  work,  .-it  leail  ten  min- 
utes  in  addition  to  the  regular  meal  tim<   .  shall  '<■   allowed  to  each  work' 
washing. 

A  notice  to  this  effect  shall  be  affixed  in  each  department 

20.  The  occupier  shall  provide  and  maintain  stiffii  ienl  bath    and  dre    ing  rooms 

for  all  persons  employed   in    lead   proci      ■    .    with   hot   and   <  ol<l    .■.  p   ,-,nrl 

towels,  and  shall  cause  each  such  person  to  take  a  bath  once  a  week  at  the 
factory. 

A  bath  register  shall  be  kept,  containing  a  list  of  all  persons  employed  in  lead 
processes,  and  an  entry  of  the  date  when  each  person  takes  a  bath. 

This  register  shall  be  produced  at  any  time  when  required  by  H.  M.  inspectors 
of  factories  or  by  the  certifying  surgeon  or  by  the  appointed  surgeon. 

21.  The  dressing  rooms,  baths,  and  water-closets  shall  be  cleaned   daily. 

22.  The  floor  of  each  workroom  shall  be  cleaned  daily,  after  being  thoroughly 
damped. 

Duties  of  persons  employed. 

23.  No  person  shall  strip  a  white  bed  or  empty  a  chamber  without  previously 
effectually  damping  as  directed  in  Rules  2  and  3. 

24.  No  person  shall  carry  corrosions,  or  put  them  into  the  rollers  or  wash- 
becks,  otherwise  than  as  permitted  by  Rule  4. 

25.  No  person  shall  set  or  draw  a  stove  otherwise  than  as  permitted  by  Rules 
6  and  7. 

26.  No  person  shall  deposit  or  pack  dry  white  lead  otherwise  than  as  permitted 
by  Rules  8  and  9. 

27.  Every  person  employed  in  a  lead  process  shall  present  himself  at  the  ap- 
pointed times  for  examination  by  the  appointed  surgeon,  as  provided  in  Rule  12. 

28.  No  person,  after  suspension  by  the  appointed  surgeon,  shall  work  in  a  lead 
process  without  his  written  sanction. 

29.  Every  person  engaged  in  [stripping]  white  beds,  emptying  chambers,  rollers, 
washbecks  or  grinding,  setting  or  drawing  stoves,  packing,  paint  mixing,  handling 
dry  white  lead,  or  in  any  work  involving  exposure  to  white-lead  dust,  shall,  while 
so  occupied,  wear  an  overall  suit  and  head  covering. 

Every  person  engaged  in  stripping  white  beds,  or  in  emptying  chambers,  or  in 
drawing  stoves,  or  in  packing,  shall  in  addition  wear  a  respirator  while  so 
occupied. 

30.  Every  person  engaged  in  any  place  or  process  named  in  Rule  29  shall,  be- 
fore partaking  of  meals  or  leaving  the  premises,  deposit  the  overalls,  head 
coverings,  and  respirators  in  the  place  appointed  by  the  occupier  for  the  purpose, 
and  shall  thoroughly  wash  face  and  hands  in  the  lavatory. 

31.  Every  person  employed  in  a  lead  process  shall  take  a  bath  at  the  factory 
at  least  once  a  week,  and  wash  in  the  lavatory  before  bathing;  having  done  so, 
he  shall  at  once  sign  his  name  in  the  bath  register,  with  the  date. 

32.  No  person  employed  in  a  lead  process  shall  smoke  or  use  tobacco  in  any 
form,  or  partake  of  food  or  drink,  elsewhere  than  in  the  dining  room  or  kitchen. 

33.  No  person  shall  in  any  way  interfere,  without  the  knowledge  and  concur- 
rence of  the  occupier  or  manager,  with  the  means  and  appliances  provided  for 
the  removal  of  dust. 

34.  The  foreman  shall  report  to  the  manager,  and  the  manager  shall  report  to 
the  occupier,  any  instance  coming  under  his  notice  of  a  worker  neglecting  to 
observe  these  rules. 

35.  No  person  shadll  obtain  employment  under  an  assumed  name  or  under  any 
false  pretense. 

Arthur  Whitelegge, 
Chief  Inspector  of  Factories. 
M.  W.  Ridley, 
One  of  Her  Majesty's  Principal  Secretaries  of  State. 
ist  June,  1899. 

Note. — These  rules  must  be  kept  posted  up  in  conspicuous  places  in  the  factory 
to  which  they  apply,  where  they  may  be  conveniently  read  by  the  persons  em- 
ployed.   Any  person  who  is  bound  to  observe  these  rules  and  fails  to  do  so,  or 


132 

acts  in  contravention  of  them,  is  liable  to  a  penalty ;  and  in  such  cases  the  occu- 
pier also  is  liable  to  a  penalty  unless  he  proves  that  he  has  taken  all  reasonable 
means  by  publishing,  and  to  the  best  of  his  power,  enforcing  the  rules,  to 
prevent  the  contravention  or  noncompliance.  (Factory  and  Workshop  Act, 
1901,  sections  85  and  86.) 

Red  and  Orange  Lead  Works. 

(Form  261 — February,  1904.) 

Duties  of  occupiers. 

In  drawing  charges  of  massicot,  or  of  red  lead,  or  of  orange  lead,  from  the 
furnace  they  shall  not  allow  the  charges  of  massicot,  or  of  red  lead,  or  of  orange 
lead,  to  be  discharged  on  to  the  floor  of  the  factory  or  workshop,  but  shall  ar- 
range that  it  be  shoveled,  not  raked,  into  wagons. 

They  shall  arrange  that  no  red  or  orange  lead  shall  be  packed  in  the  room  or 
rooms  where  the  manufacture  is  actually  carried  on. 

They  shall  arrange  that  no  red  or  orange  lead  shall  be  packed  in  casks  or 
other  receptacles  except  in  a  place  provided  with  a  hood  connected  with  a  fan, 
or  shall  provide  other  suitable  means  to  create  an  effective  draft. 

They  shall  provide  sufficient  bath  accommodation  for  all  persons  employed 
in  the  manipulation  of  red  and  orange  lead,  and  lavatories,  with  a  good  supply 
of  hot  water,  soap,  nailbrushes,  and  towels  for  the  use  of  such  persons. 

They  shall  arrange  for  a  monthly  visit  by  a  medical  man  who  shall  examine 
every  worker  individually,  and  who  shall  enter  the  result  of  each  examination 
in  a  register  book  to  be  provided  by  the  said  occupiers. 

They  shall  provide  a  sufficient  supply  of  approved  sanitary  drink  for  the 
workers. 

Duties  of  persons  employed. 

In  cases  where  the  cooperation  of  the  workers  is  required  for  carrying  out 
the  foregoing  rules,  and  where  such  cooperation  is  not  given,  the  workers  shall 
be  held  liable  in  accordance  with  the  Factory  and  Workshop  Act,  1891,  section 
9,  which  runs  as  follows : 

"If  any  person  who  is  bound  to  observe  any  special  rules  established  for  any 
factory  or  workshop  under  this  act,  acts  in  contravention  of,  or  fails  to  comply 
with,  any  such  special  rule,  he  shall  be  liable  on  summary  conviction  to  a  fine  not 
exceeding  two  pounds   [$9-73]-" 

Yellow  Lead. 

(Form  263 — February,   1904. ) 

Duties  of  occupiers. 

They  shall  provide  washing  conveniences,  with  a  sufficient  supply  of  hot  and 
cold  water,  soap,  nailbrushes,  and  towels. 

They  shall  provide  respirators  and  overall  suits  for  the  persons  employed  in  all 
dry   processes. 

They  shall  provide  fans  or  other  suitable  means  of  ventilation  wherever  dust 
is  generated  in  the  process  of  manufacture. 

They  shall  provide  a  sufficient  supply  of  epsom  salts  and  of  an  approved  san- 
itary drink. 

Duties  of  persons  employed. 

In  cases  where  the  cooperation  of  the  workers  is  required  for  carrying  out  the 
foregoing  rules  and  where  such  cooperation  is  not  given,  the  workers  shall  be 
held  liable,  in  accordance  with  the  Factory  and  Workshop  Act,  1891,  section  9, 
which  runs  as  follows : 

"If  any  person  who  is  bound  to  observe  any  special  rules  established  for  any 


133 

factory  or  workshop  under  this  act,  acta  in  contravention  of,  or  fail*  to  comply 
with,  any  such  special  rule,  he  shall  be  liable  on  summary  conviction  to 
not  exceeding  two  pounds  [$9.73]." 

Respirators:  A  good  respirator  is  a  cimbrii  I).';:  with  or  without  a  thin 
flexible   wire  made   to  hi   over  tin-   nose 

Sanitary  drink  suggested:  Sulphate  of  magnesia,  2  ozs.;  water,  1  gallon; 
essence  of  lemon,  sufficient   to  flavor. 

Lead  Smelting  Wokks. 

(Form  264 — January,    1906.) 

Duties  of  occupiers. 

They  shall  provide  respirators  and  overall  suits  for  the  use  of  all  persons 
employed  in  cleaning  the  flues,  and  take  means  to  see  that  the  same  are  used. 

They  shall  arrange  that  no  person  be  allowed  to  remain  at  work  more  than 
two  hours  at  a  time  in  a  flue.  (A  rest  of  half  an  hour  before  reentering  will  be 
deemed  sufficient 

They  shall  provide  sufficient  bath  accommodation  for  all  persons  employed  in 
cleaning  the  flues,  and  every  one  so  employed  shall  take  a  bath  before  leaving 
the  works. 

They  shall  provide  washing  conveniences,  with  a  sufficient  supply  of  hot  and 
cold  water,  soap,  nailbrushes  and  towels. 

Duties  of  persons  employed. 

In  cases  where  the  cooperation  of  the  workers  is  required  for  carrying  out 
the  foregoing  rules,  and  where  such  cooperation  is  not  given,  the  workers  shall 
be  held  liable,  in  accordance  with  the  Factory  and  Workshop  Act,  1891,  section 
9,  which  runs  as  follows : 

"If  any  person  who  is  bound  to  observe  any  special  rules  established  for  any 
factory  or  workshop  under  this  act,  acts  in  contravention  of,  or  fails  to  comply 
with,  any  such  special  rule,  he  shall  be  liable  on  summary  conviction  to  a  fine 
not  exceeding  two  pounds  [$9.73]." 

Special  Rules  for  Factories  or  Workshops  in  Which  Yellow  Chromate 
of  Lead  is  Used,  or  in  Which  Goods  Dyed  with  it  Undergo  the  Pro- 
cesses of  Building  or  Noddling,  Winding,  Reeling,  Weaving  or  any 
Other  Treatment. 

(Form  270 — February,  1904.) 

Duties  of  occupiers. 

They  shall  provide  washing  conveniences,  with  a  sufficient  supply  of  hot  and 
cold  water,  soap,  nailbrushes,  and  towels. 

They  shall  provide  respirators  and  overall  suits  for  the  persons  employed  in  all 
dry  processes. 

They  shall  provide  fans  and  other  suitable  means  of  ventilation  wherever  dust 
is  generated  in  the  process  of  manufacture. 

They  shall  provide  a  sufficient  supply  of  epsom  salts,  and  of  the  sanitary  drink 
mentioned  below  or  some  other  approved  by  H.  M.  inspector  of  factories. 

Respirators :  A  good  respirator  is  a  cambric  bag  with  or  without  a  thin 
flexible  wire  made  to  fit  over  the  nose. 

Sanitary  drink :  Sulphate  of  magnesia,  2  ozs. ;  water,  1  gallon ;  essence  of 
lemon,  sufficient  to  flavor. 

Duties  of  persons  employed. 

Every  person  to  whom  is  supplied  a  respirator  or  overall  suit  shall  wear  the 
same  when  at  the  special  work  for  which  such  are  provided. 


134 

Everj'  person  shall  carefully  clean  and  wash  hands  and  face  before  meals  and 
before  leaving  the  works. 

No  food  shall  be  eaten  in  any  part  of  the  works  in  which  yellow  chromate  of 
lead  is  used  in  the  manufacture. 

Arthur  Whitelegge, 
H.  M.  Chief  Inspector  of  Factories. 

Under  section  9,  Factor}'  Act,  1891,  any  person  who  is  bound  to  observe  any 
special  rules  is  liable  to  penalties  for  noncompliance  with  such  special  rules. 

Amended  Special  Rules  for  the  Manufacture  and  Decoration  of  Earthen- 
ware and  China. 

As  established,  after  arbitration,  by  the  awards  of  the  umpire,  Lord  James  of 
Hereford,  dated  30th  of  December,  1901,  and  28th  of  November,  1903. 

(Form  923 — October,   1905.) 

Duties  of  occupiers. 

1.  Deleted. 

2.  After  the  1st  day  of  February,  1904,  no  glaze  shall  be  used  which  yields  to 
a  dilute  solution  of  hydrochloric  acid  more  than  five  per  cent  of  its  dry  weight 
of  a  soluble  lead  compound  calculated  as  lead  monoxide  when  determined  in  the 
manner  described  below. 

A  weighed  quantity  of  dried  material  is  to  be  continuously  shaken  for  one 
hour,  at  the  common  temperature,  with  1,000  times  its  weight  of  an  aqueous 
solution  of  hydrochloric  acid  containing  0.25  per  cent  of  HC1.  This  solution  is 
thereafter  to  be  allowed  to  stand  for  one  hour  and  to  be  passed  through  a 
filter.  The  lead  salt  contained  in  an  aliquot  portion  of  the  clear  filtrate  is  then 
to  be  precipitated  as  lead  sulphide  and  weighed  as  lead  sulphate. 

If  any  occupier  shall  give  notice  in  writing  to  the  inspector  for  the  district 
that  he  desires  to  use  glaze  which  does  not  conform  to  the  above  mentioned  con- 
ditions, and  to  adopt  in  his  factory  the  scheme  of  compensation  prescribed  in 
Schedule  B  and  shall  affix  and  keep  the  same  affixed  in  his  factory,  the  above 
provisions  shall  not  apply  to  his  factory  but  instead  thereof  the  following  pro- 
visions shall  apply. 

All  persons  employed  in  any  process  included  in  Schedule  A  other  than  china 
scouring  shall  be  examined  before  the  commencement  of  their  employment  or  at 
the  first  subsequent  visit  of  the  certifying  surgeon,  and  once  in  each  calendar 
month  by  the  certifying  surgeon  of  the  district. 

The  certifying  surgeon  may  at  any  time  order  by  signed  certificate  the  sus- 
pension of  any  such  person  from  employment  in  any  process  included  in  Schedule 
A  other  than  china  scouring,  if  such  certifying  surgeon  is  of  opinion  that  such 
person  by  continuous  work  in  lead  will  incur  special  danger  from  the  effects  of 
plumbism,  and  no  person  after  such  suspension  shall  be  allowed  to  work  in  any 
process  included  in  Schedule  A  other  than  china  scouring  without  a  certificate 
of  fitness  from  the  certifying  surgeon  entered  in  the  register. 

Any  workman  who,  by  reason  of  his  employment  being  intermittent  or  casual, 
or  of  his  being  in  regular  employment  for  more  than  one  employer,  is  unable  to 
present  himself  regularly  for  examination  by  the  certifying  surgeon,  may  procure 
himself  at  his  own  expense  to  be  examined  once  a  month  by  a  certifying  surgeon, 
and  such  examination  shall  be  a  sufficient  compliance  with  this  rule.  The  results 
of  such  examination  shall  be  entered  by  the  certifying  surgeon  in  a  book  to  be 
kept  in  the  possession  of  the  workman.  He  shall  produce  and  show  the  said 
book  to  a  factory  inspector  or  to  any  employer  on  demand,  and  he  shall  not 
make  any  entry  or  erasure  therein. 

If  the  occupier  of  any  factory  to  which  this  rule  applies  fails  duly  to  observe 
the  conditions  of  the  said  scheme,  or  if  any  such  factory  shall  by  reason  of  the 
occurrence  of  cases  of  lead  poisoning  appear  to  the  secretary  of  state  to  be  in  an 
unsatisfactory  condition,  he  may,  after  an  inquiry,  at  which  the  occupier  shall 
have  an  opportunity  of  being  heard,  prohibit  the  use  of  lead  for  such  time  and 
subject  to  such  conditions  as  he  may  prescribe. 


MS 

All  persons  employed  in  the  processes  included  in  Schedule  A  other  than  china 
scouring  shall  present  themselves  al  the  appointed  time  foi  examination  by  '1": 
certifying  surgeon,  as  provided  in  this  rule 

In  addition  to  the  examinations  al  the  appointed  times,  anj  person  so  emp 
may  at  any  time  present  himself  to  the  certifying  surgeon  Cot  examination,  and 
shall  be  examined  on  paying  the  prescribed  fee. 

All  persons  shall  obey  any  directions  given  hy  the  certifying  surgeon. 

No  person  after  suspension  hy  the  certifying  Burgeon  shall  work  in  any  pi 

included  in  Schedule  A  oilier  than  china  scouring  without  a  certificate  of  fitness 
from  the  certifying  surgeon  entered  in  the  register.  Any  operative  who  fads  with- 
out reasonable  cause  to  attend  any  monthly  examination  shall  procure  himself,  at 
his  own  expense,  to  he  examined  within  14  days  thereafter  by  the  certifying  sur- 
geon, and  shall  himself  pay  the  prescribed  fee. 

A  register,  in  the  form  which  has  been  prescribed  by  the  secretary  of  state  for 
use  in  earthenware  and  china  works,  shall  be  kept,  and  in  it  the  certifying  surgeon 
shall  enter  the  dates  and  results  of  his  visits,  the  number  of  persons  examined 
and  particulars  of  any  directions  given  by  him.  This  register  shall  contain  a 
list  of  all  persons  employed  in  the  processes  included  in  Schedule  A,  or  in  empty- 
ing china  biscuit  ware,  and  shall  be  produced  at  any  time  when  required  hy 
His   Majesty's  inspector  of  factories  or  by  the  certifying   surgeon. 

3.  The  occupier  shall  allow  any  of  His  Majesty's  inspectors  of  factories  to 
take  at  any  time  sufficient  samples  for  analysis  of  any  material  in  use  or  mixed 
for  use. 

Provided  that  the  occupier  may  at  the  time  when  the  sample  is  taken,  and  on 
providing  the  necessary  appliances,  require  the  inspector  to  take,  seal,  and  de- 
liver to  him  a  duplicate  sample. 

But  no  analytical  result  shall  be  disclosed  or  published  in  any  way  except  such 
as  shall  be  necessary  to  establish  a  breach  of  these  rules. 

4.  No  woman,  young  person,  or  child  shall  be  employed  in  the  mixing  of  un- 
frittcd  lead  compounds  in  the  preparation  or  manufacture  of  fritts,  glazes,  or 
colors. 

5.  No  person  under  15  years  of  age  shall  be  employed  in  any  process  included 
in  Schedule  A,  or  in  emptying  china  biscuit  ware. 

Thimble-picking,  or  threading-up,  or  looking-over  biscuit  ware  shall  not  be 
carried  on  except  in  a  place  sufficiently  separated  from  any  process  included  in 
Schedule  A. 

6.  All  women  and  young  persons  employed  in  any  process  included  in  Schedule 
A  shall  be  examined  once  in  each  calendar  month  by  the  certifying  surgeon  for 
the  district. 

The  certifying  surgeon  may  order  by  signed  certificate  in  the  register  the  sus- 
pension of  any  such  women  or  young  persons  Trorn  employment  in  any  process 
included  in  Schedule  A,  and  no  person  after  such  suspension  shall  be  allowed 
to  work  in  any  process  included  in  Schedule  A  without  a  certificate  of  fitness 
from  the  certifying  surgeon  entered  in  the  register. 

7.  A  register,  in  the  form  which  has  been  prescribed  by  the  secretary  of 
state  for  use  in  earthenware  and  china  works,  shall  be  kept,  and  in  it  the  cer- 
tifying surgeon  shall  enter  the  dates  and  results  of  his  visits,  the  number  of 
persons  examined  in  pursuance  of  Rule  6  as  amended,  and  particulars  of  any 
directions  given  by  him.  This  register  shall  contain  a  list  of  all  persons  em- 
ployed in  the  processes  included  in  Schedule  A,  or  in  emptying  china  biscuit 
ware,  and  shall  be  produced  at  any  time  when  required  by  H.  M.  inspector 
of  factories  or  by  the  certifying  surgeon. 

8.  The  occupier  shall  provide  and  maintain  suitable  overalls  and  head  cov- 
erings for  all  women  and  youne  persons  employed  in  the  processes  included  in 
the  Schedule  A,  or  in  emptying  china  biscuit  ware. 

No  person  shall  be  allowed  to  work  in  any  process  included  in  the  schedule, 
or  in  emptying  china  biscuit  ware,  without  wearing  suitable  overalls  and  head 
coverings,  provided  that  nothing  in  this  rule  shall  render  it  obligatory  on  any 
person  engaged  in  drawing  glost  ovens  to  wear  overalls  and  head  coverings. 

All  overalls,  head  coverings,  and  respirators,  when  not  in  use  or  being  washed 
or  repaired,  shall  be  kept  by  the  occupier  in  proper  custody.  They  shall  be 
washed  or  renewed  at  least  once  a  week,  and  suitable  arrangements  shall  be 
made  by  the  occupier  for  carrying  out  these  requirements. 


136 

A  suitable  place,  other  than  that  provided  for  the  keeping  of  overalls,  head 
coverings,  and  respirators,  in  which  all  the  above  worKers  can  deposit  clothing 
put  off  during  working  hours,  shall  be  provided  by  the  occupier. 

Each  respirator  shall  bear  the  distinguishing  mark  of  the  worker  to  whom  it 
is  supplied: 

9.  No  person  shall  be  allowed  to  keep,  or  prepare,  or  partake  of  any  food,  or 
drink,  or  tobacco,  or  remain  during  meal  times  in  a  place  in  which  is  carried  on 
any  process  included  in  Schedule  A. 

The  occupier  shall  make  suitable  provision  to  the  reasonable  satisfaction  of  the 
inspector  in  charge  of  the  district  for  the  accommodation  during  meal  times  of 
persons  employed  in  such  places  or  processes,  with  a  right  of  appeal  to  the 
chief  inspector  of  factories.  Such  accommodation  shall  not  be  provided  in  any 
room  or  rooms  in  which  any  process  included  in  Schedule  A  is  carried  on,  and 
no  washing  conveniences  mentioned  hereafter  in  Rule  13  shall  be  maintained  in 
any  room  or  rooms  provided  for  such  accommodation. 

Suitable  provision  shall  be  made  for  the  deposit  of  food  brought  by  the 
workers. 

10.  The  processes  of  the  towing  of  earthenware,  china  scouring,  ground  lay- 
ing, ware  cleaning  after  the  dipper,  color  dusting,  whether  on-glaze  or  under- 
glaze,  color  blowing,  whether  on-glaze  or  under-glaze,  glaze  blowing,  or  transfer 
making,  shall  not  be  carried  on  without  the  use  of  exhaust  fans,  or  other  efficient 
means  for  the  effectual  removal  of  dust,  to  be  approved  in  each  particular  case 
by  the  secretary  of  state,  and  under  such  conditions  as  he  may  from  time  to  time 
prescribe. 

In  the  process  of  ware  cleaning  after  the  dipper,  sufficient  arrangements  shall 
be  made  for  any  glaze  scraped  off  which  is  not  removed  by  the  fan,  or  the  other 
efficient  means,  to  fall  into  water. 

In  the  process  of  ware  cleaning  of  earthenware  after  the  dipper,  damp  sponges 
or  other  damp  material  shall  be  provided  in  addition  to  the  knife  or  other  in- 
strument, and  shall  be  used  wherever  practicable. 

Flat-knocking  and  fired-flint-sifting  shall  be  carried  on  only  in  inclosed  recep- 
tacles, which  shall  be  connected  with  an  efficient  fan  or  other  efficient  draught 
unless  so  contrived  as  to  prevent  effectually  the  escape  of  injurious  dust. 

In  all  processes  the  occupier  shall,  as  far  as  practicable,  adopt  efficient  mea- 
sures for  the  removal  of  dust  and  for  the  prevention  of  any  injurious  effects 
arising  therefrom. 

11.  No  person  shall  be  employed  in  the  mixing  of  unfritted  lead  compounds, 
in  the  preparation  or  manufacture  of  fritts,  glazes  or  colors  containing  lead 
without  wearing  a  suitable  and  efficient  respirator  provided  and  maintained  by 
the  employer;  unless  the  mixing  is  performed  in  a  closed  machine  or  the  ma- 
terials are  in  such  a  condition  that  no  dust  is  produced. 

Each  respirator  shall  bear  the  distinguishing  mark  of  the  worker  to  whom  it 
is  supplied. 

12.  All  drying  stoves  as  well  as  all  workshops  and  all  parts  of  factories  shall 
be  effectually  ventilated  to  the  reasonable  satisfaction  of  the  inspector  in  charge 
of  the  district. 

13.  The  occupier  shall  provide  and  continually  maintain  sufficient  and  suitable 
washing  conveniences  for  all  persons  employed  in  the  processes  included  in 
Schedule  A,  as  near  as  practicable  to  the  places  in  which  such  persons  are 
employed. 

The  washing  conveniences  shall  comprise  soap,  nailbrushes  and  towels,  and  at 
least  one  wash-hand  basin  for  every  five  persons  employed  as  above,  with  a 
constant  supply  of  water  laid  on,  with  one  tap  at  least  for  every  two  basins,  and 
conveniences  for  emptying  the  same  and  running  off  the  waste  water  on  the 
spot  down  a  waste  pipe. 

There  shall  be  in  front  of  each  washing  basin,  or  convenience,  a  space  for 
standing  room  which  shall  not  be  less  in  any  direction  than  21  inches. 

14.  The  occupier  shall  see  that  the  floors  of  workshops  and  of  such  stoves  as 
are  entered  by  the  work  people  are  sprinkled  and  swept  daily;  that  all  rust, 
scraps,  ashes,  and  dirt  are  removed  daily,  and  that  the  mangles,  workbenches,  and 
stairs  leading  to  workshops  are  cleaned  weekly. 

When   so   required  by  the  inspector  in  charge  of  the  district,  by  notice  in 


'37 
writing,  any  such  floors,  mangli  ,  workbenches,  and    tain  shall  be  cleansed  in 

such  manner  and  at  such  linn   ,  a  ,  may  lie  directed  in     u<  h  notice. 

As  regards  every  puiici:.'  shop  and  stove,  and  every  place  in  which  any  pi 

included    in    Schedule    A    is    carried    on,    the    OCCIipier    shall    can  -•    th< 
cleansing  of  floors  to  be  done  at  a  lime  when  no  other  work  is  being  carried  00 
in  such  room,  and  in  the  case  of  potters'     hops,   stoves,  dipping  houses,  and 
majolica  painting  rooms,  by  an  adult  male. 

Provided  thai  in  the  case  of  rooms  in  which  ground  laying  or  glost  placing  is 
carried  on,  or  in  china  dippers'  drying  room,  the  cleansing  prescribed  by  this 
rule  may  be  done  before  work  commences  for  the  flay,  but  in  no  case  shall  any 
work  be  carried  on  in  the  room  within  one  hour  after  any  such  cleansing  as 
aforesaid  has  ceased. 

15.  The  occupier  shall  cause  the  boards  used  in  the  dipping  house,  dippers' 
drying  room,  or  glost  placing  shop  to  be  cleansed  every  week,  and  shall  not  allow 
them  to  be  used  in  any  other  department,  except  after  being  cleansed. 

When  so  required  by  the  inspector  in  charge  of  the  district,  by  notice  in 
writing,  any  such  boards  shall  be  washed  at  such  times  as  may  be  directed  in 
such  notice. 

Duties  of  persons  employed. 

16.  All  women  and  young  persons  employed  in  the  processes  included  in 
Schedule  A  shall  present  themselves  at  the  appointed  time  for  examination  by  the 
certifying  surgeon  as  provided  in  Rule  6  as  amended. 

No  person  after  suspension  by  the  certifying  surgeon  shall  work  in  any  process 
included  in  the  schedule  without  a  certificate  of  fitness  from  the  certifying  sur- 
geon entered  in  the  register. 

17.  Every  person  employed  in  any  process  included  in  Schedule  A,  or  in 
emptying  china  biscuit  ware,  shall,  when  at  work,  wear  a  suitable  overall  and 
head  covering,  and  also  a  respirator  when  so  required  by  Rule  11  as  amended, 
which  shall  not  be  worn  outside  the  factory  or  workshop,  and  which  shall  not  be 
removed  therefrom  except  for  the  purpose  of  being  washed  or  repaired.  Such 
overall  and  head  covering  shall  be  in  proper  repair  and  duly  washed. 

The  hair  must  be  so  arranged  as  to  be  fully  protected  from  dust  by  the  head 
covering. 

The  overalls,  head  coverings,  and  respirators  when  not  being  worn,  and 
clothing  put  off  during  working  hours,  shall  be  deposited  in  the  respective  places 
provided  by  the  occupier  for  such  purposes  under  Rule  8  as  amended. 

18.  No  person  shall  remain  during  meal  times  in  any  place  in  which  is  carried 
on  any  process  included  in  Schedule  A,  or  introduce,  keep,  prepare,  or  partake 
of  any  food  or  drink  or  tobacco  therein  at  any  time. 

19.  No  person  shall  in  any  way  interfere,  without  the  knowledge  and  concur- 
rence of  the  occupier  or  manager,  with  the  means  and  appliances  provided  by  the 
employers  for  the  ventilation  of  the  workshops  and  stoves,  and  for  the  removal 
of  dust. 

20.  No  person  included  in  any  process  included  in  Schedule  A  shall  leave  the 
works  or  partake  of  meals  without  previously  and  carefully  cleaning  and  wash- 
ing his  or  her  hands. 

No  person  employed  shall  remove  or  damage  the  washing  basins  or  conveni- 
ences provided  under  Rule  13. 

20a.  The  persons  appointed  by  the  occupiers  shall  cleanse  the  several  parts  of 
the  factory  regularly  as  prescribed  in  Rule  14. 

Every  worker  shall  so  conduct  his  or  her  work  as  to  avoid,  as  far  as  practi- 
cable, making  or  scattering  dust,  dirt,  or  refuse,  or  causing  accumulation  of  such. 

21.  The  boards  used  in  the  dipping  house,  dippers'  drying  room,  or  glost 
placing  shop  shall  not  be  used  in  any  other  department,  except  after  being 
cleansed,  as  directed  in  Rule  15. 

Exemption  for  Processes  in  Which  No  Lead  or  Other  Poisonous  Material 

Is  Used. 

22.  If  the  occupier  of  a  factory  to  which  these  rules  apply  gives  with  reference 
to  any  process  included  in  Schedule  A,  other  than  china  scouring,  an  undertaking 


138 

that  no  lead  or  lead  compound  or  other  poisonous  material  shall  be  used,  the 
chief  inspector  may  approve  in  writing  of  the  suspension  of  the  operation  of 
Rules  4,  5,  6,  7,  8,  15,  16,  17,  and  21,  or  any  of  them  in  such  process;  and  there- 
upon such  rules  shall  be  suspended  as  regards  the  process  named  in  the  chief 
inspector's  approval,  and  in  lieu  thereof  the  following  rule  shall  take  effect,  viz, 
No  lead  or  lead  compound  or  other  poisonous  material  shall  be  used  in  any 
process  so  named.       . 

For  the  purpose  of  this  rule  materials  that  contain  no  more  than  1  per  cent  of 
lead  shall  be  regarded  as  free  from  lead. 

Note. — These  rules  must  be  kept  posted  up  in  conspicuous  places  in  the  factory 
to  which  they  apply,  where  they  may  be  conveniently  read  by  persons  employed. 
Any  person  who  is  bound  to  observe  these  rules  and  fails  to  do  so,  or  acts  in 
contravention  to  them,  is  liable  to  a  penalty,  and  in  such  cases  the  occupier 
also  is  liable  to  a  penalty  unless  he  proves  that  he  has  taken  all  reasonable  means, 
by  publishing  and  to  the  best  of  his  power  enforcing  the  rules,  to  prevent  the 
contravention  or  non-compliance. 

SCHEDULE  A. 

Dipping  or  other  process  carried  on  in  the  dipping  house, 

Glaze  blowing, 

Painting  in  majolica  or  other  glaze, 

Drying  after  dipping, 

Ware  cleaning  after  the  application  of  glaze  by  dipping  or  other  process, 

China  scouring, 

Glost  placing, 

Ground  laying, 

Color  dusting     )     .    .,  ,  ,        , 

Color  blowing    \  whether  on-glaze  or  under-glaze, 

Lithographic  transfer  making, 

Making  or  mixing  of  fritts,  glazes,  or  colors  containing  lead. 

Any  other  process  in  which  materials  containing  lead  are  used  or  handled  in 
the  dry  state,  or  in  the  form  of  spray,  or  in  suspension  in  liquid  other  than  oil 
or  similar  medium. 

SCHEDULE  A. 

Notice  to   Workmen  Employed  in   Process   Named  in   Schedule  A,   Other 
Than  China  Scouring. 

Conditions  of  compensation. 

1.  Where  a  workman  is  suspended  from  working  by  a  certifying  surgeon  of 
the  district  on  the  ground  that  he  is  of  opinion  that  such  person  by  continued 
work  in  lead  will  incur  special  danger  from  the  effects  of  plumbism,  and  the 
certifying  surgeon  shall  certify  that  in  his  opinion  he  is  suffering  from  plumbism 
arising  out  of  his  employment,  he  shall,  subject  as  hereinafter  mentioned,  be 
entitled  to  compensation  from  his  employer  as  hereinafter  provided. 

(a)  If  any  workman  who  has  been  suspended  as  ofersaid  dies  within  nine 
calendar  months  from  the  date  of  such  certificate  of  suspension,  by  reason  of 
plumbism  contracted  before  said  date,  there  shall  be  paid  to  such  of  his  de- 
pendants as  are  wholly  dependent  upon  his  earnings  at  the  time  of  his  death 
or  upon  the  weekly  compensation  payable  under  this  scheme,  a  sum  equal  to  the 
amount  he  has  earned  during  a  period  of  three  years  next  preceding  the  date  of 
the  said  certificate,  such  sum  not  to  be  more  than  £300  [$1,459-95]  nor  less  than 
£150  [$729.98]  for  an  adult  male,  iioo  [$486.65]  for  an  adult  female,  and  £75 
[$364.99]  for  a  young  person. 

(b)  If  the  workman  does  not  leave  any  dependants  wholly  dependent  as 
aforesaid,  but  leaves  any  dependants  in  part  dependent  as  aforesaid,  a  reasonable 
part  of  that  sum. 

(c)  If  he  leaves  no  dependants,  the  reasonable  expenses  of  his  medical  at- 
tendance and  burial,  not  exceeding  ten  pounds. 

2.  With  respect  to  such  payments  the  following  provisions  shall  apply — 


139 

(a)  All  sums  paid  t<>  the  workmen  as  compensation  since  the  date  oi  thi 
certificate  shall  be  deducted  from  the  Bums  payable  to  the  dependants. 

(b)  The  paymenl  .hall,  in  case  of  death,  be  made  to  the  legal  pi  i  onal  repre- 
sentative "I  the  workingman,  or,  if  lie  has  no  legal  pcr'.onal  r-  pr<  >  ntativc,  to 
or  for  the  benefil  oi  his  dependants,  or,  if  he  leaves  no  dependants,  u>  the  ; 

to  whom  the  expenses  arc  due;  and  if  made  to  tin    l-.i'.al  |«t  onal  r- preventative 
shall  be   paid   hy   him  to  or  for   the   benefit  of  the   dependants  or   other   p 
entitled  thereto. 

(c)  Any  question  as  to  who  is  a  dependant,  or  as  to  the  amount  payable  to 
each  dependant,  shall  in  default  of  agreement  be  settled  by  arbitration  as  herein- 
after provided  in  clause  9. 

(d)  The  sum  allotted  as  compensation  to  a  dependant  may  be  invested  or 
otherwise  applied  for  the  benefit  of  the  person  entitled  thereto,  as  agreed,  or  as 
ordered  by  the  arbitrator. 

(e)  Any  sum  which  is  agreed  or  is  ordered  by  the  arbitrator  to  be  invested 
may  be  invested  in  whole  or  in  part  in  the  post-office  savings  bank. 

3.  Where  a  workman  has  been  suspended  and  certified  as  provided  in  Condi- 
tion I,  and  while  he  is  totally  or  partially  prevented  from  earning  a  living  by 
reason  of  such  suspension,  he  shall  be  entitled  to  a  weekly  payment  not  ex- 
ceeding fifty  per  cent  of  his  average  weekly  earnings  at  the  time  of  such  sus- 
pension, such  payment  not  to  exceed  £1  [$4X7].  The  average  may  be  taken  over 
such  period,  not  exceeding  twelve  months,  as  appears  fair  or  reasonable  having 
regard  to  all  the  circumstances  of  the  case. 

4.  In  fixing  these  weekly  payments,  regard  shall  be  had  to  the  difference 
between  the  amount  of  the  average  weekly  earnings  of  the  workman  at  the  time 
of  his  suspension  and  the  average  amount,  if  any,  which  it  is  estimated  that  he 
will  be  able  to  earn  afterwards  in  any  occupation  or  employment,  and  to  any 
payments  (not  being  wages)  which  he  may  have  received  from  the  employer  in 
respect  of  the  suspension,  and  to  all  the  circumstances  of  the  case,  including 
his  age  and  expectation  of  life. 

5.  If  it  shall  appear  that  any  workman  has  persistently  disobeyed  the  special 
rules  or  the  directions  given  for  his  protection  by  his  employers,  and  that  such 
disobedience  has  conduced  to  his  suspension,  or  has  not  presented  himself  for 
examination  by  the  certifying  surgeon,  or  has  failed  to  give  full  information 
and  assistance  as  provided  in  Condition  6,  his  conduct  may  be  taken  into  con- 
sideration in  assessing  the  amount  of  the  weekly  payments. 

6.  It  shall  be  the  duty  of  every  workman  at  all  times  to  submit  to  medical 
examination  when  required  and  to  give  full  information  to  the  certifying  sur- 
geon and  to  assist  to  the  best  of  his  power  in  the  obtaining  of  all  facts  necessary 
to  enable  his  physical  condition  to  be  ascertained. 

7.  Any  weekly  payment  may  be  reviewed  at  the  request  either  of  the  em- 
ployer or  of  the  workman,  and  on  such  review  may  be  ended,  diminished,  or  in- 
creased, subject  to  the  maximum  above  provided,  and  the  amount  of  payment 
shall,  in  default  of  agreement,  be  settled  by  arbitration. 

8.  Any  workman  receiving  weekly  payments  under  this  scheme  shall  submit 
himself  if  required  for  examination  by  a  duly  qualified  medical  practitioner  pro- 
vided and  paid  by  the  employer. 

If  the  workman  refuses  to  submit  himself  to  such  examination  or  in  any  way 
obstructs  the  same,  his  right  to  such  weekly  payments  shall  be  suspended  until 
such  examination  has  taken  place. 

9.  If  any  dispute  shall  arise  as  to  any  certificate  of  the  certifying  surgeon  or 
as  to  the  amount  of  compensation  payable  as  herein  provided,  or  otherwise  in 
relation  to  these  provisions,  the  same  shall  be  decided  by  an  arbitrator  to  be 
appointed  by  the  employer  and  workman,  or  in  default  of  agreement  by  the 
secretary  of  state.  The  said  arbitrator  shall  have  all  the  powers  of  an  arbitra- 
tor under  the  Arbitration  Act,  and  his  decision  shall  be  final. 

The  fee  of  the  arbitrator  shall  be  fixed  by  the  secretary  of  state,  and  shall  be 
paid  as  the  arbitrator  shall  direct. 

10.  No  compensation  shall  be  payable  under  these  provisions  unless  notice 
of  claim  in  writing  is  made  within  six  weeks  of  the  date  of  the  certificate  of 
suspension,  or  of  the  death,  provided  that  the  want  of  such  notice  shall  not  bar 
the  claim  if  in  the  opinion  of  the  arbitrator  there  was  reasonable  excuse  for  the 
want  of  it. 


140 

A  claim  for  compensation  by  any  workman  whose  employment  is  intermittent, 
or  casual,  or  who  is  regularly  employed  by  more  than  one  employer,  shall  only 
arise  against  the  employers  for  whom  he  has  worked  in  a  process  included  in 
Schedule  A  within  one  month  prior  to  his  suspension.  The  said  employers  shall 
bear  the  compensation  among  them  in  such  proportion  as  in  default  of  agree- 
ment shall  be  determined  by  an  arbitrator  as  herein  provided. 

II.  "Employer"  includes  an  occupier,  a  corporation,  and  the  legal  representa- 
tives of  a  deceased  employer.  "Workman"  includes  every  person,  male  or 
female,  whether  his  agreement  be  one  of  service  or  apprenticeship  or  other- 
wise, and  is  expressed  or  implied,  orally,  or  in  writing,  and  shall  include  the 
personal  representatives  of  a  deceased  workman.  "Dependants"  has  the  same 
meaning  as  in  the  Workmen's  Compensation  Act,  1897. 

The  terms  contained  in  this  notice  shall  be  deemed  to  be  part  of  the  contract 
of  employment  of  all  workmen  in  the  above-named  process. 

Electric  Accumulators. 

Whereas  the  manufacture  of  electric  accumulators  has  been  certified  in  pur- 
suance of  section  79  of  the  Factory  and  Workshop  Act,  1901,  to  be  dangerous ; 

I  hereby,  in  pursuance  of  the  powers  conferred  on  me  by  that  act,  make  the 
following  regulations,  and  direct  that  they  shall  apply  to  all  factories  and  work- 
shops or  parts  thereof  in  which  electric  accumulators  are  manufactured. 

In  these  regulations  "lead  process"  means  pasting,  casting,  lead  burning,  or 
any  work  involving  contact  with  dry  compounds  of  lead. 

Any  approval  given  by  the  chief  inspector  of  factories  in  pursuance  of  these 
regulations  shall  be  given  in  writing,  and  may  at  any  time  be  revoked  by  notice 
in  writing  signed  by  him. 

Duties  of  occupier. 

1.  Every  room  in  which  casting,  pasting  or  lead  burning  is  carried  on  shall 
contain  at  least  500  cubic  feet  of  air  space  for  each  person  employed  therein,  and 
in  computing  this  air  space,  no  height  above  14  feet  shall  be  taken  into  account. 

These  rooms  and  that  in  which  the  plates  are  formed,  shall  be  capable  of 
thorough  ventilation.     They  shall  be  provided  with  windows  made  to  open. 

2.  Each  of  the  following  processes  shall  be  carried  on  in  such  manner  and 
under  such  conditions  as  to  secure  effectual  separation  from  one  another  and 
from  any  other  process : — 

(a)  Manipulation  of  dry  compounds  of  lead; 

(b)  Pasting; 

(c)  Formation,  and  lead  burning  necessarily  carried  on  therewith; 

(d)  Melting  down  of  old  plates. 

Provided  that  manipulation  of  dry  compounds  of  lead  carried  on  as  in  Regula- 
tion 5  (b)  need  not  be  separated  from  pasting. 

3.  The  floors  of  the  rooms  in  which  manipulation  of  dry  compounds  of  lead  or 
pasting  is  carried  on  shall  be  of  cement  or  similar  impervious  material,  and  shall 
be  kept  constantly  moist  while  work  is  being  done. 

The  floors  of  these  rooms  shall  be  washed  with  a  hose  pipe  daily. 

4.  Every  melting  pot  shall  be  covered  with  a  hood  and  shaft  so  arranged  as  to 
remove  the  fumes  and  hot  air  from  the  workrooms. 

Lead  ashes  and  old  plates  shall  be  kept  in  receptacles  specially  provided  for 
the  purpose. 

5.  Manipulation  of  dry  compounds  of  lead  in  the  mixing  of  the  paste  or  other 
processes,  shall  not  be  done  except  (a)  in  any  apparatus  so  closed,  or  so  arranged 
with  an  exhaust  draft,  as  to  prevent  the  escape  of  dust  into  the  workroom;  or, 
(&)  at  a  bench  provided  with  (1)  efficient  exhaust  draft  and  air  guide  so  ar- 
ranged as  to  draw  the  dust  away  from  the  worker,  and  (2)  a  grating  on  which 
each  receptacle  of  the  compound  of  lead  in  use  at  the  time  shall  stand. 

6.  The  benches  at  which  pasting  is  done  shall  be  covered  with  sheet  lead  or 
other  impervious  material,  and  shall  have  raised  edges. 

7.  No  woman,  young  person,  or  child  shall  be  employed  in  the  manipulation  of 
dry  compounds  of  lead  or  in  pasting. 

8.  (a)  A  duly  qualified  medical  practitioner  (in  these  regulations  referred  to 
as  the  "appointed  surgeon")    who  may  be  the  certifying  surgeon,  shall  be  ap- 


141 

pointed  by  the  occupier,  BUCfa  appointment   unless  held  by  the  certifying  surgeon 
to  be  subject  to  the  approval  of  the  chief  inspector  of  factories. 

(b)  Every  person  employed  in  a  lead  process  shall  be  examined  once  a  month 
by  the  appointed  surgeon,  who  shall  have  power  to  suspend  from  employment  in 
any  lead  process. 

(c)  No  person  after  such  suspension  shall  be  employed  in  a  lead  process 
without  written  sanction  entered  in  the  health  register  by  the  appointed  surgeon. 
It  shall  be  sufficient  compliance  with  this  regulation  for  a  written  certificate 
to  be  given  by  the  appointed  surgeon  and  attached  to  the  health  register,  such 
certificate  to  be  replaced  by  a  proper  entry  in  the  health  register  at  the  ap- 
pointed surgeon's  next  visit. 

(d)  A  health  register  in  a  form  approved  by  the  chief  inspector  of  factories 
shall  be  kept,  and  shall  contain  a  list  of  all  persons  employed  in  lead  processes. 
The  appointed  surgeon  will  enter  in  the  health  register  the  dates  and  results  of 
his  examinations  of  the  persons  employed  and  particulars  of  any  directions  given 
by  him.  He  shall  on  a  prescribed  form  furnish  to  the  chief  inspector  of  fac- 
tories on  the  first  day  of  January  in  each  year  a  list  of  the  persons  suspended 
by  him  during  the  previous  year,  the  cause  and  duration  of  such  suspension, 
and  the  number  of  examinations  made. 

The  health  register  shall  be  produced  at  any  time  when  required  by  H.  M. 
inspectors  of  factories  or  by  the  certifying  surgeon  or  by  the  appointed  surgeon. 

9.  Overalls  shall  be  provided  for  all  persons  employed  in  manipulating  dry 
compounds  of  lead  or  in  pasting. 

The  overalls  shall  be  washed  or  renewed  once  every  week. 

10.  The  occupier  shall  provide  and  maintain — 

(a)  A  cloakroom  in  which  workers  can  deposit  clothing  put  off  during  work- 
ing hours.  Separate  and  suitable  arrangements  shall  be  made  for  the  storage  of 
the  overalls  required  in  regulation  9. 

(b)  A  dining  room  unless  the  factory  is  closed  during  meal  hours. 

11.  No  person  shall  be  allowed  to  introduce,  keep,  prepare,  or  partake  of  any 
food,  drink,  or  tobacco,  in  any  room  in  which  a  lead  process  is  carried  on. 
Suitable  provision  shall  be  made  for  the  deposit  of  food  brought  by  the  workers. 

This  regulation  shall  not  apply  to  any  sanitary  drink  provided  by  the  occupier 
and  approved  by  the  appointed  surgeon. 

12.  The  occupier  shall  provide  and  maintain  for  the  use  of  the  persons  em- 
ployed in  lead  processes  a  lavatory,  with  soap,  nailbrushes,  towels,  and  at  least 
one  lavatory  basin  for  every  five  such  persons.  Each  such  basin  shall  be  pro- 
vided with  a  waste  pipe,  or  the  basins  shall  be  placed  on  a  trough  fitted  with  a 
waste  pipe.  There  shall  be  a  constant  supply  of  hot  and  cold  water  laid  onto 
each  basin. 

Or,  in  the  place  of  basins  the  occupier  shall  provide  and  maintain  troughs  of 
enamel  or  similar  smooth  impervious  material,  in  good  repair,  of  a  total  length 
of  two  feet  for  every  five  persons  employed,  fitted  with  waste  pipes,  and  without 
plugs,  with  a  sufficient  supply  of  warm  water  constantly  available. 

The  lavatory  shall  be  kept  thoroughly  cleansed  and  shall  be  supplied  with  a 
sufficient  quantity  of  clean  towels  once  every  day. 

13.  Before  each  meal  and  before  the  end  of  the  day's  work,  at  least  ten  minutes, 
in  addition  to  the  regular  meal  times,  shall  be  allowed  for  washing  to  each 
person  who  has  been  employed  in  the  manipulation  of  dry  compounds  of  lead 
or  in  pasting. 

Provided  that  if  the  lavatory  accommodation  specially  reserved  for  such  per- 
sons exceeds  that  required  by  Regulation  12,  the  time  allowance  may  be  pro- 
portionately reduced,  and  that  if  there  be  one  basin  or  two  feet  of  trough  for 
each  such  person  this  regulation  shall  not  apply. 

14.  Sufficient  bath  accommodation  shall  be  provided  for  all  persons  engaged 
in  the  manipulation  of  dry  compounds  of  lead  or  in  pasting,  with  hot  and  cold 
water  laid  on,  and  a  sufficient  supply  of  soap  and  towels. 

This  rule  shall  not  apply  if  in  consideration  of  the  special  circumstances  of 
any  particular  case,  the  chief  inspector  of  factories  approves  the  use  of  local 
public  baths  when  conveniently  near,  under  the  conditions  (if  any)  named  in 
such  approval. 

15.  The  floors  and  benches  of  each  workroom  shall  be  thoroughly  cleansed 
daily  at  a  time  when  no  other  work  is  being  carried  on  in  the  room. 


142 

Duties  of  persons  employed. 

16.  All  persons  employed  in  lead  processes  shall  present  themselves  at  the 
appointed  times  for  examination  by  the  appointed  surgeon  as  provided  in  Regu- 
lation 8. 

No  person  after  suspension  shall  work  in  a  lead  process,  in  any  factory  or 
workshop  in  which  electric  accumulators  are  manufactured,  without  written 
sanction  entered  in  the  health  register  by  the  appointed  surgeon. 

17.  Every  person  employed  in  the  manipulation  of  dry  compounds  of  lead  or  in 
pasting  shall  wear  the  overalls  provided  under  Regulation  9.  The  overalls,  when 
not  being  worn,  and  clothing  put  off  during  working  hours,  shall  be  deposited 
in  the  places  provided  under  Regulation  10. 

18.  No  person  shall  introduce,  keep,  prepare,  or  partake  of  any  food,  drink 
(other  than  any  sanitary  drink  provided  by  the  occupier  and  approved  by  the 
appointed  surgeon),  or  tobacco  in  any  room  in  which  a  lead  process  is  carried  on. 

19.  No  person  employed  in  a  lead  process  shall  leave  the  premises  or  partake 
of  meals  without  previously  and  carefully  cleaning  and  washing  the  hands. 

20.  Every  person  employed  in  the  manipulation  of  dry  compounds  of  lead 
or  in  pasting  shall  take  a  bath  at  least  once  a  week. 

21.  No  person  shall  in  any  way  interfere,  without  the  concurrence  of  the 
occupier  or  manager,  with  the  means  and  appliances  provided  for  the  removal 
of  the  dust  or  fumes,  and  for  the  carrying  out  of  these  regulations. 

These  regulations  shall  come  into  force  on  the  1st  day  of  January,  1904. 

A.  Akers-Douglas, 
One  of  His  Majesty's  Principal  Secretaries  of  State. 
Home  Office,  Whitehall,  21st  November,  1903. 

Works  of  Parts  of  Works,  in  Which  Lead,  Arsenic,  or  Antimony  is  Used  in 
the  Enameling  of  Iron  Plates. 

(Form  251 — January,  1906.) 

Duties  of  occupiers. 

1.  They  shall  provide  washing  conveniences  with  a  sufficient  supply  of  hot  and 
cold  water,  soap,  nailbrushes,  and  towels,  and  take  measures  to  secure  that  every 
worker  wash  face  and  hands  before  meals  and  before  leaving  the  works. 

2.  They  shall  provide  suitable  respirators,  overall  suits,  and  head  coverings 
for  all  workers  employed  in  the  processes  of  grinding,  dusting,  and  brushing. 

3.  They  shall  adopt  measures  on  and  after  the  first  day  of  October,  1894,  in 
the  dusting  and  brushing  processes  for  the  removal  of  all  superfluous  dust,  by 
the  use  of  perforated  benches  or  tables  supplied  with  fans  to  carry  the  dust 
down  through  the  apertures  of  such  benches  or  tables,  the  under  part  of  which 
must  be  boxed  in. 

4.  They  shall  provide  a  sufficient  supply  of  approved  sanitary  drink,  and  shall 
cause  the  work  people  to  take  it. 

5.  They  shall  arrange  for  a  medical  inspection  of  all  persons  employed,  at 
least  once  a  month. 

They  shall  see  that  no  female  is  employed  without  previous  examination  and 
a  certificate  of  fitness  from  the  medical  attendant  of  the  works. 

They  shall  see  that  no  person  who  has  been  absent  from  work  through  illness 
shall  be  reemployed  without  a  medical  certificate  to  the  effect  that  he  or  she 
has  recovered. 

6.  Upon  any  person  employed  in  the  works  complaining  of  being  unwell,  the 
occupier  shall,  with  the  least  possible  delay,  and  at  his  own  expense,  give  an 
order  upon  a  doctor  for  professional  attendance  and  medicine.  It  is  to  be 
understood  that  this  rule  will  not  apply  to  persons  suffering  from  complaints 
which  have  not  been  contracted  in  the  process  of  manufacture. 

7.  They  shall  provide  a  place  or  places  free  from  dust  and  damp  in  which 
the  operatives  can  hang  up  the  clothes  in  which  they  do  not  work. 

(It  is  recommended  that  they  shall  provide  for  each  female  before  the  day's 
work  begins  some  light  refreshment,  such  as  a  half  pint  of  milk  and  a  biscuit.) 


143 

Duties  of  persons  employed. 

8.  Every  person  to  whom  is  supplied  a  respirator  or  overall  and  head  covering 
shall  wear  the  same  when  at  the  work  for  wlii<  li  su<  li  arc  provided. 

9.  Every  person  shall  carefully  clean  and  wash  hands  and  face  before  meals 
and  before  leaving  the  works. 

10.  No  food  shall  be  eaten  by  any  person  in  any  part  of  the  work',  except  in 
the  apartment  specially  provided  for  the  purpose. 

11.  No  person  may  seek  employment  under  an  assumed  name  or  under  any 
false  pretense. 

Respirators :  A  good  respirator  is  a  cambric  bag  with  or  without  a  thin  flexi- 
ble wire  made  to  fit  over  the  nose. 

Sanitary  drink  suggested :  Sulphate  of  magnesia,  2  oz. ;  water,  1  gallon ; 
essence  of  lemon,  sufficient  to  flavor. 

Arthur  Whitelegge, 
H.  M.  Chief  Inspector  of  Factories. 

Note. — These  rules  must  be  kept  posted  up  in  conspicuous  places  in  the  factory 
to  which  they  apply,  where  they  may  be  conveniently  read  by  the  persons  em- 
ployed. Any  person  who  is  bound  to  observe  these  rules  and  fails  to  do  so  or 
acts  in  contravention  of  them,  is  liable  to  a  penalty ;  and  i  nsuch  case  the 
occupier  also  is  liable  to  a  penalty  unless  he  proves  that  he  has  taken  all  reason- 
able means  by  publishing,  and  to  the  best  of  his  power,  enforcing  the  rules,  to 
prevent  the  contravention  or  non-compliance. 

Works  in  Which  Lead  or  Arsenic  is  Used  in  the  Tinning  and  Enameling  op 
Metal  Hollow  Ware  and  Cooking  Utensils. 

(Form  385 — March  1906.) 
Duties  of  occupiers. 

They  shall  provide  washing  conveniences  with  a  sufficient  supply  of  hot  and 
cold  water,  soap,  nailbrushes,  and  towels,  and  take  measures  to  secure  that 
every  worker  wash  face  and  hands  before  meals  and  before  leaving  the  works. 

They  shall  see  that  no  food  is  eaten  in  any  room  where  the  process  of  tinning 
or  enameling  is  carried  on. 

Duties  of  persons  employed. 

Every  worker  shall  wash  face  and  hands  before  meals  and  before  leaving  the 
works. 

No  worker  shall  eat  food  in  any  room  where  the  process  of  tinning  or  enamel- 
ing is  carried  on. 

Arthur  Whitelegge, 
H.  M.  Chief  Inspector  of  Factories. 

Note. — These  rules  must  be  kept  posted  up  in  conspicuous  places  in  the  fac- 
tory to  which  they  apply,  where  they  may  be  conveniently  read  by  the  persons 
employed.  Any  person  who  is  bound  to  observe  these  rules  and  fails  to  do  so 
or  acts  in  contravention  of  them,  is  liable  to  a  penalty,  and  in  such  case  the 
occupier  also  is  liable  to  a  penalty  unless  he  proves  that  he  has  taken  all  reason- 
able means  by  publishing,  and  to  the  best  of  his  power,  enforcing  the  rules,  to 
prevent  the  contravention  or  non-compliance. 

Processes  in  the  Manufacture  of  Paints  and  Colors,  and  in  the  Extraction 

of  Arsenic. 

(Form  249 — June,  1904.) 

Duties  of  occupiers. 

1.  They  shall  provide  washing  conveniences,  with  a  sufficient  supply  of  hot 
and  cold  water,  soap,  nailbrushes,  and  towels,  and  take  measures  to  secure  that 


144 

every  worker  wash  face  and  hands  before  meals,  and  before  leaving  the  works; 
and,  in  addition  to  the  above,  sufficient  bath  accommodation  for  the  use  of  all 
persons  employed  in  the  manufacture  of  milan  red,  vermilionette,  or  persian  red. 

2.  They  shall  provide  suitable  respirators  and  overall  suits  kept  in  a  cleanly 
state,  for  all  workers  engaged  in  any  department  where  dry  white  lead  or  ar- 
senic is  used  in  either  the  manufacture  or  paint  mixing,  and  overall  suits  for 
those  engaged  in  grinding  in  water  or  oil,  and  for  all  workers  in  milan  red, 
vermilionette,  or  persian  red,  wherever  dust  is  generated. 

3.  They  shall  provide  a  sufficient  supply  of  approved  sanitary  drink,  which 
shall  be  accessible  to  the  workers  at  all  times,  and  shall  cause  such  approved 
sanitary  drink  to  be  taken  daily  by  workers  in  any  department  where  white 
lead  or  arsenic  is  used  in  the  manufacture,  and  shall  provide  a  supply  of  aperient 
medicine,  which  shall  be  given  to  the  workers,  when   required,  free  of  charge. 

4.  No  food  shall  be  eaten  in  any  part  of  the  works  where  white  lead  or  arsenic 
is  used  in  the  manufacture. 

Duties  of  persons  employed. 

5.  Every  person  to  whom  is  supplied  a  respirator  or  overall  suit  shall  wear 
the  same  when  at  the  special  work  for  which  such  are  provided. 

6.  Every  person  shall  carefully  clean  and  wash  hands  and  face  before  meals 
and  before  leaving  the  works. 

7.  No  food  shall  be  eaten  in  any  part  of  the  works  in  which  white  lead  or 
arsenic  is  used  in  the  manufacture. 

8.  No  person  shall  smoke  or  use  tobacco  in  any  part  of  the  works  in  which 
white  lead  or  arsenic  is  used  in  the  manufacture. 

Arthur  Whitelegge, 
H.  M.  Chief  Inspector  of  Factories. 

Note. — These  rules  must  be  kept  posted  up  in  conspicuous  places  in  the  works 
to  which  they  apply,  where  they  may  be  conveniently  read  by  the  persons  em- 
ployed. Any  person  who  is  bound  to  observe  these  rules  and  fails  to  do  so  or 
acts  in  contravention  of  them,  is  liable  to  a  penalty ;  and  in  such  case  the  occupier 
also  is  liable  to  a  penalty  unless  he  proves  that  he  has  taken  all  reasonable 
means  by  publishing,  and  to  the  best  of  his  power,  enforcing  the  rules,  to  pre- 
vent the  contravention  or  non-compliance. 

Processes    in    the   Mixing   and    Casting   Brass,    Gun    Metal,    Bell    Metal 
White  Metal,  Delta  Metal,  Phosphor  Bronze,  and  Manilla  Mixture. 

(Form  271 — February,  1904.) 

Duties  of  occupiers. 

1.  They  shall  provide  adequate  means  for  facilitating,  as  far  as  possible,  the 
emission  or  escape  from  the  shop  of  any  noxious  fumes  or  dust  arising  from 
the  above-named  processes.  Such  means  shall  include  the  provision  of  traps 
or  of  louver  gratings  in  the  roof  or  ceiling  of  any  shop  in  which  such  processes, 
or  either  of  them,  is  or  are  carried  on;  or  in  case  of  a  mixing  or  casting  shop 
which  is  situated  under  any  other  shop,  there  shall  be  provided  an  adequate 
flue  or  shaft  (other  than  any  flue  or  shaft  in  connection  with  a  furnace  or  fire- 
place) to  carry  any  fumes  from  the  mixing  or  casting  shop,  by  or  through  any 
such  shop  that  may  be  situated  above  it. 

2.  They  shall  cause  all  such  mixing  or  casting  shops,  whether  defined  as  fac- 
tories or  as  workshops  under  the  Factory  and  Workshop  Act,  1878,  to  be  cleaned 
down  and  limewashed  once  at  least  within  every  twelve  months,  or  once  within 
every  six  months  if  so  required  by  notice  in  writing  from  H.  M.  inspector  of 
factories  and  workshops,  dating  from  the  time  when  these  were  last  thus  cleaned 
down  and  limewashed;  and  they  shall  record  the  dates  of  such  cleaning  down 
and  limewashing  in  a  prescribed  form  of  register. 

3.  They  shall  provide  a  sufficient  supply  of  metal  basins,  water,  and  soap,  for 
the  use  of  all  persons  employed  in  such  mixing  or  casting  shops. 

4.  They  shall  not  employ,  or  allow  within  their  factory  or  workshop  the  em- 


M5 

ploymcnt  of,   any    woman   or    female   younj'.    p<  r.on,    if]    any    pfOOCM    what'-vrr,    in 
any  sucli  mixing  or  casting  shopi  or  in  any  portion  thereof  wlix  li  i-,  not  entirely 

separated  \>y  a.  partition  extending  from  the  floor  to  the  <eiiing. 

Duties  of  persons  employed. 

5.  They  shall  not  partake  of,  or  cook  any  food  in  any  such  mixing  or  1 
shop   within    a    period    of   at    least    ten    minutes    after    the    completion    of    the    ].v,t 
pouring  of  metal  in  that  shop. 

Arthur  Winn/ 1 
H.  M.  Chief  Inspector  of  factories. 
July  10,  1896. 

Women  and  young  persons  under  18  years  of  age  must  not  be  allowed  to  take 
a  meal  in  any  casting  shop  or  to  remain  there  during  the  time  stated  on  the 
notice  affixed  in  the  works  as  being  allowed  for  meals. 

These  rules  must  be  kept  posted  up  in  conspicuous  places  in  the  works  to 
which  they  apply,  where  they  may  be  conveniently  read  by  the  persons  employed. 

Any  person  who  is  bound  to  observe  these  rules  and  fails  to  do  so  or  acts  in 
contravention  of  them,  is  liable  to  a  penalty;  and  in  such  case  the  occupier  also 
is  liable  to  a  penalty  unless  he  proves  that  he  has  taken  all  reasonable  means,  by 
publishing  and  to  the  best  of  his  power  enforcing  the  rules,  to  prevent  the  con- 
travention or  non-compliance. 

Chemical  Works. 

(Form  258 — Reprinted  December,  1901.) 

1.  In  future  every  uncovered  pot,  pan,  or  other  structure  containing  liquid 
of  a  dangerous  character,  shall  be  so  constructed  as  to  be  at  least  3  feet  in  height 
above  the  ground  or  platform.  Those  already  in  existence  which  are  less 
than  3  feet  in  height,  or  in  cases  where  it  is  proved  to  the  satisfaction  of  an 
inspector  that  a  height  of  3  feet  is  impracticable,  shall  be  securely  fenced. 

2.  There  shall  be  a  clear  space  around  such  pots,  pans,  or  other  structures,  or 
where  any  junction  exists  a  barrier  shall  be  so  placed  as  to  prevent  passage. 

3.  Caustic  pots  shall  be  of  such  construction  that  there  shall  be  no  footing  on 
the  top  or  sides  of  the  brickwork,  and  dome-shaped  lids  shall  be  used  where 
possible. 

4.  No  unfenced  planks  or  gangways  shall  be  placed  across  open  pots,  pans,  or 
other  structures  containing  liquid  of  a  dangerous  character.  This  rule  shall  not 
apply  to  black  ash  vats  where  the  vats  themselves  are  otherwise  securely 
fastened. 

5.  Suitable  respirators  shall  be  provided  for  the  use  of  the  workers  in  places 
where  poisonous  gases  or  injurious  dust  may  be  inhaled. 

6.  The  lighting  of  all  dangerous  places  shall  be  made  thoroughly  efficient. 

7.  Every  place  where  caustic  soda  or  caustic  potash  is  manufactured  shall  be 
supplied  with  syringes  or  wash  bottles,  which  shall  be  inclosed  in  covered  boxes 
fixed  in  convenient  places,  in  the  proportion  of  one  to  every  four  caustic  pots. 
They  shall  be  of  suitable  form  and  size,  and  be  kept  full  of  clean  water.  Sim- 
ilar appliances  shall  be  provided  wherever,  in  the  opinion  of  an  inspector,  they 
may  be  desirable. 

8.  Overalls,  kept  in  a  cleanly  state,  shall  be  provided  for  all  workers  in  any 
room  where  chlorate  of  potash  or  other  chlorate  is  ground.  In  every  such  room 
a  bath  shall  be  kept  ready  for  immediate  use. 

In  every  chlorate  mill,  tallow  or  other  suitable  lubricant  shall  be  used  instead 
of  oil. 

9.  Respirators  charged  with  moist  oxide  of  iron  or  other  suitable  substance, 
shall  be  kept  in  accessible  places  ready  for  use  in  cases  of  emergency  arising 
from  the  sulphuretted  hydrogen  or  other  poisonous  gases. 

10.  In  salt  cake  departments  suitable  measures  shall  be  adopted  by  maintain- 
ing a  proper  draft  and  by  other  means  to  obviate  the  escape  of  low-level  gases. 

11.  Weldon  bleaching  powder  chambers,  after  the  free  gas  has.  as  far  as  may 
be  practicable,  been   drawn  off  or  absorbed  by  fresh  lime,  shall,  before  being 


146 

opened,  be  tested  by  the  standard  recognized  under  the  Alkali  Act.     Such  tests 
shall  be  duly  entered  in  a  register  kept  for  the  purpose. 

All  chambers  shall  be  ventilated  as  far  as  possible,  when  packing  is  being 
carried  on,  by  means  of  open  doors  on  opposite  sides  and  openings  in  the  roof 
so  as  to  allow  of  a  free  current  of  air. 

12.  In  cases  where  the  cooperation  of  the  workers  is  required  for  carrying  out 
the  foregoing  rules,  and  where  such  cooperation  is  not  given,  the  workers  shall 
be  held  liable  in  accordance  with  the  Factory  and  Workshop  Act,  1891,  section 
9,  which  runs  as  follows:  "If  any  person  who  is  bound  to  observe  any  special 
rules,  established  for  any  factory  or  workshop  under  this  Act,  acts  in  contraven- 
tion of,  or  fails  to  comply  with,  any  such  special  rule,  he  shall  be  liable  on  sum- 
mary conviction  to  a  fine  not  exceeding  two  pounds  [$9.73]." 

Arthur  Whitelegge, 
H.   M.  Chief  Inspector  of  Factories. 

Amended  Special  Rules  for  Chemical  Works  in  Which  is  Carried  on  the 
Manufacture  of  Bichromate  or  Chromate  of  Potassium  or  Sodium. 

(Form  260 — January,  1906.) 

In  these  rules  "persons  employed  in  a  chromo  process"  means  a  person  who 
is  employed  in  any  work  involving  contact  with  chromate  or  bichromate  of 
potassium  or  sodium,  or  involving  exposure  to  dust  or  fumes  arising  from  the 
manufacture  thereof. 

Any  approval  given  by  the  chief  inspector  in  pursuance  of  Rule  10  shall  be 
given  in  writing,  and  may  at  any  time  be  revoked  by  notice  in  writing  signed 
by  him. 

Duties  of  occupiers. 

1.  No  uncovered  pot,  pan,  or  other  structure  containing  liquid  of  a  dangerous 
character  shall  be  so  constructed  as  to  be  less  than  3  feet  in  height  above  the 
adjoining  ground  or  platform. 

This  rule  shall  not  apply  to  any  pot,  pan,  or  other  structure  constructed  before 
January  1,  1899,  or  in  which  a  height  of  3  feet  is  impracticable  by  reason  of  the 
nature  of  the  work  to  be  carried  on,  provided  in  either  case  that  the  structure 
is  securely  fenced. 

2.  There  shall  be  a  clear  space  round  all  pots,  pans,  or  other  structures  con- 
taining liquid  of  a  dangerous  character,  except  where  any  junction  exists,  in 
which  case  a  barrier  shall  be  so  placed  as  to  prevent  passage. 

3.  No  unfenced  plank  or  gangway  shall  be  placed  across  any  pot,  pan,  or 
other  structure  containing  liquid  of  a  dangerous  character. 

4.  The  lighting  of  all  dangerous  places  shall  be  made  thoroughly  efficient 

5.  The  grinding,  separating,  and  mixing  of  the  raw  materials  (including  chrome 
ironstone,  lime,  and  sodium  and  potassium  carbonate)  shall  not  be  done  without 
such  appliances  as  will  prevent,  as  far  as  possible,  the  entrance  of  dust  into  the 
workrooms.  ,  . 

6.  "Batches,"  when  withdrawn  from  the  furnaces,  shall  either  be  placed  in 
the  keaves  or  vats  while  still  warm,  or  be  allowed  to  cool  in  barrows,  or  other 
receptacles. 

7.  Evaporating  vessels  shall  be  covered  in,  and  shall  be  provided  with  ventilat- 
ing shafts  to  carry  the  steam  into  the  outside  air. 

8.  Packing  or  crushing  of  bichromate  of  potassium  or  sodium  shall  not  be 
done  except  under  conditions  which  secure  either  the  entire  absence  of  dust 
or  its  effectual  removal  by  means  of  a  fan. 

9.  No  child  or  young  person  shall  be  employed  in  a  chrome  process. 

10.  The  occupier  shall,  subject  to  the  approval  of  the  chief  inspector,  appoint 
a  duly  qualified  medical  practitioner  (in  these  rules  referred  to  as  the  appointed 
surgeon),  who  shall  examine  all  persons  employed  in  chrome  processes  at  least 
once  in  every  month,  and  shall  undertake  any  necessary  medical  treatment  of 
disease  contracted  in  consequence  of  such  employment,  and  shall,  after  the  30th 
day  of  April,  1900,  have  power  to  suspend  any  such  person  from  work  in  any 
place  or  process. 


M7 

(/;)    No  person  after  such  suspension  shall  he  employed  in  any  chrOtllC  pfOCCM 

wiihoui  the  written  sanction  of  the  appointed  surgeon 
(c)  A  register  shall  be  kepi  in  a  form  approved  by  the  chief  in  pector,  and 

shall  contain  a  list  of  all  persons  employed  in  any  chrome  process.  The  apj, 
surgeon  shall   enter   in   the   register  the   date,  and    i'    nits  of   his   examinat: 
the  persons  employed  and  particulars  of  any  treatment  prescribed  by  him.     The 
register  shall  be  produced  at  any  time  when  required  by  ll.  M.  inspectors  of 
factories  or  by  the  appointed  surgeon. 

11.  Requisites  (approved  by  the  appointed  surgeon)  for  treating  slight  wounds 
and  ulcers  shall  be  kept  at  band  and  be  placed  in  charge  of  a  responsible  j. 

12.  The  occupier  shall  provide  sufficient,  and  suitable  overall  suits  for  the  use 
of  all  persons  engaged  in  the  processes  of  grinding  the  raw  materials,  and  suffi- 
cient and  suitable  overall  suits  or  other  adequate  means  of  protection  approved 
in  writing  by  the  appointed  surgeon,  for  the  use  of  all  persons  engaged  in  the 
crystal  department  or  in  packing. 

Respirators  approved  by  the  appointed  surgeon  shall  be  provided  for  the  use 
of  all  persons  employed  in  packing  or  crushing  bichromate  of  sodium  or  potas- 
sium. 

At  the  end  of  every  day's  work  they  shall  be  collected  and  kept  in  proper  cus- 
tody in  a  suitable  place  set  apart  for  the  purpose. 

The  overalls  and  respirators  shall  be  thoroughly  washed  or  renewed  every 
week. 

13.  The  occupier  shall  provide  and  maintain  a  cloakroom  in  which  workers 
can  deposit  clothing  put  off  during  working  hours. 

14.  The  occupier  shall  provide  and  maintain  a  lavatory  for  the  use  of  the 
persons  employed  in  chrome  processes ;  with  soap,  nailbrushes,  and  towels,  and 
a  constant  supply  of  hot  and  cold  water  laid  onto  each  basin.  There  shall  be  at 
least  one  lavatory  basin  for  every  five  persons  employed  in  the  crystal  department 
and  in  packing.  Each  such  basin  shall  be  fitted  with  a  waste  pipe,  or  shall  be 
placed  in  a  trough  fitted  with  a  waste  pipe. 

15.  The  occupier  shall  provide  and  maintain  sufficient  baths  and  dressing 
rooms  for  all  persons  employed  in  chrome  processes,  with  hot  and  cold  water 
laid  on,  and  a  sufficient  supply  of  soap  and  towels ;  and  shall  cause  each  person 
employed  in  the  crystal  department  and  in  packing  to  take  a  bath  once  a  week  at 
the  factory. 

A  bath  register  shall  be  kept  containing  a  list  of  all  persons  employed  in  the 
crystal  department  and  in  packing,  and  an  entry  of  the  date  when  each  person 
takes  a  bath. 

The  bath  register  shall  be  produced  at  any  time  when  required  by  H.  M.  in- 
spectors of  factories. 

16.  The  floors,  stairs,  and  landings,  shall  be  cleaned  daily. 

Duties  of  persons  employed. 

17.  No  person  shall  deposit  a  "batch"  when  withdrawn  from  the  furnace  upon 
the  floor  nor  transfer  it  to  the  keaves  or  vats  otherwise  than  as  prescribed  in 
Rule  6. 

18.  No  person  shall  pack  or  crush  bichromate  of  potassium  or  sodium  other- 
wise than  as  prescribed  in  Rule  8. 

19.  (a)  Every  person  employed  in  a  chrome  process  shall  present  himself  at 
the  appointed  times  for  examination  by  the  appointed  surgeon  as  provided  in 
Rule  10. 

(6)  After  the  30th  day  of  April,  1000,  no  person  suspended  by  the  appointed 
surgeon  shall  work  in  a  chrome  process  without  his  written  sanction. 

20.  Every  person  engaged  in  the  processes  of  grinding  the  raw  materials  shall 
wear  an  overall  suit,  and  every  person  engaged  in  the  crystal  department  or 
in  packing  shall  wear  an  overall  suit  or  other  adequate  means  of  protection  ap- 
proved by  the  appointed  surgeon. 

Every  person  employed  in  packing  or  crushing  bichromate  of  sodium  or 
potassium  shall  in  addition  wear  a  respirator  while  so  occupied. 

21.  Every  person  employed  in  the  processes  named  in  Rule  20  shall  before  leav- 
ing the  premises  deposit  the  overalls  and  respirators  in  the  place  appointed  by  the 
occupier  for  the  purpose,  and  shall  thoroughly  wash  face  and  hands  in  the 
lavatory. 


148 

22.  Every  person  employed  in  the  crystal  department  and  in  packing  shall  take 
a  bath  at  the  factory  at  least  once  a  week;  and,  having  done  so,  shall  at  once 
sign  his  name  in  the  bath  register  with  the  date. 

23.  The  foreman  shall  report  to  the  manager  any  instance  coming  under  his 
notice  of  a  workman  neglecting  to  observe  these  rules. 

Arthur  Whitelegge, 
Chief  Inspector  of  Factories. 
M.  W.  Ridley, 
One  of  Her  Majesty's  Principal  Secretaries  of  State. 
February,  1900. 

Note. — These  rules  must  be  kept  posted  up  in  conspicuous  places  in  the  fac- 
tory to  which  they  apply,  where  they  may  be  conveniently  read  by  the  persons 
employed.  Any  person  who  is  bound  to  observe  these  rules  and  fails  to  do  so 
or  acts  in  contravention  of  them,  is  liable  to  penalty ;  and  in  such  cases  the 
occupier  also  is  liable  to  a  penalty  unless  he  proves  that  he  has  taken  all  reason- 
able means  by  publishing,  and  to  the  best  of  his  power,  enforcing  the  rules,  to 
prevent  the  contravention  or  non-compliance. 

Manufacture  of  Explosives  in  which  Di-Nitro-Benzole  is  Used. 

(Form  257 — December,  1904.) 

1.  No  person  to  be  employed  without  a  medical  certificate,  stating  that  he 
or  she  is  physically  fit  for  such  employment. 

2.  An  examination  of  the  workers  at  their  work  to  be  made  at  least  once  a  fort- 
night by  a  certifying  surgeon,  who  shall  have  power  to  order  temporary  sus- 
pension or  total  change  of  work  for  any  perosn  showing  symptoms  of  suffering 
from  the  poison,  or  if  after  a  fair  trial  he  is  of  opinion  that  any  person  is  by 
constitution  unfit,  he  shall  direct  that  such  person  shall  cease  to  be  employed. 

3.  A  supply  of  fresh  milk,  and  of  any  drug  that  the  medical  officer  may  con- 
sider desirable,  shall  be  kept  where  the  workers  in  his  opinion  may  require  it. 

4.  No  meals  to  be  taken  in  the  work  rooms. 

5.  There  shall  be  provided  separate  lavatories  for  men  and  women,  with  a 
good  supply  of  hot  water,  soap,  nailbrushes,  and  towels,  and  whenever  the  skin 
has  come  in  contact  with  di-nitro— benzole,  the  part  shall  be  immediately  washed. 

6.  Overall  suits  and  head  coverings  shall  be  supplied  to  all  workers  in  shops 
where  di-nitro-benzole  is  used,  these  suits  to  be  taken  off  or  well  brushed  before 
meals  and  before  leaving  the  works,  and  to  be  washed  at  least  once  a  week. 

7.  Suitable  respirators  (capable  of  being  washed),  folds  of  linen,  or  woolen 
material  of  open  texture,  or  other  suitable  material,  shall  be  supplied  to  those 
workers  liable  to  inhale  dust,  and  the  wearing  of  such  respirators  shall  be 
urged  where  the  workers  derive  benefit  from  their  use. 

8.  Where  di-nitro-benzole  has  to  be  handled,  the  hands  shall  always  be  pro- 
tected from  direct  contact  with  it,  either  by  the  use  of  india-rubber  gloves  (kept 
perfectly  clean,  especially  in  the  inner  side),  or  by  means  of  rags  which  shall  be 
destroyed  immediately  after  use. 

9.  Where  di-nitro-benzole  is  broken  by  hand,  the  instrument  used  shall  be  a 
wooden  bar,  spade,  or  tool  with  a  handle  long  enough  to  prevent  the  worker's 
face  from  coming  into  contact  with  the  material. 

10.  In  all  rooms  or  sheds  in  which  the  process,  either  of  purifying,  grinding, 
mixing  materials  of  which  di-nitro-benzole  forms  a  part,  is  carried  on,  efficient 
"cowls,"  ventilating  shafts,  and  mechanical  ventilating  fans  shall  be  provided  to 
carry  off  the  dust  or  fumes  generated. 

11.  Drying  stoves  shall  be  efficiently  ventilated,  and,  when  possible,  be  charged 
and  drawn  at  fixed  times,  and  a  free  current  of  air  shall  be  admitted  for  some 
time  prior  to  the  workers  entering  to  draw  either  a  part  or  the  whole  of  the 
contents. 

12.  In  the  process  of  filling  cartridges,  the  material  shall  not  be  touched  by 
hand,  but  suitable  scoops  shall  be  used,  and  where  patent  ventilated  cartridge 
filling  machines  are  not  used,  there  shall  be  efficient  mechanical  ventilation  ar- 
ranged in  such  a  manner  that  the  suction  shall  draw  the  fumes  or  dust  away 
from  and  not  across  or  over  the  faces  of  the  workers. 


1,1  A.  register,  in  a  prescribed  form,  shall  be  kept,  and  it  shall  be  the  doty  oi  a 
responsible  person  named  by  the  firm  to  enter,  .-it  lea  I  onc<  tement 

that  he  has  personally  satisfied  himself  thai  each  and  all  of  the  special  ruli 
been  observed,  or  if  not,  the  reason  for  such  nonobservance. 
ciiicr  111  this  registei  the  dates  of  his  visits,  the  resull    oi    uch  '1  any 

requirements  made  by  him. 

14.  The  "dipping"  rooms  to  be  efficiently  ventilaf -  -I. 

ArtBUS   Win. 
If.    M.    Chief  Inspector  of   factories. 

Note. — These  rules  must  be  kept  posted  Up  in  conspicuous  places  in  the  fac- 
tory to  which  they  apply,  where  they  may  be  conveniently  read  by  the  p 
employed.    Any  person  who  is  hound  to  observe  these  rules  and  fails  to  do 
acts  in  contravention  of  them,  is  liable  to  a  penalty;  and  in  Bttch  case  the  OCCtt- 

pier  also  is  liable  to  a  penalty  unless  lie  proves  that  he  lias  taken  all  reasonable 
means  by  publishing,  and  to  the  best  of  his  power,  enforcing  the  rules,  to  pre- 
vent the  contravention  or  noncompliance. 

Vulcanizing  of  India  Rubber  by   Means  of  Bisulphide  of  Cakbon. 

(Form  274 — October,   1906.) 

/. — Duties   of  employers. 

1.  No  child  or  young  person  shall  be  employed  in  any  room  in  which  bisulphide 
of  carbon  is  used. 

2.  After  May  1,  1898.  no  person  shall  be  employed  for  more  than  five  hours 
in  any  day  in  a  room  in  which  bisulphide  of  carbon  is  used,  nor  for  more  than 
two  and  a  half  hours  at  a  time  without  an  interval  of  at  least  an  hour. 

3.  In  vulcanizing  waterproof  cloth  by  means  of  bisulphide  of  carbon — 

(a)  the  trough  containing  the  bisulphide  of  carbon  shall  be  self-feeding  and 
covered  over; 

(b)  the  cloth  shall  be  conveyed  to  and  from  the  drying  chamber  by  means 
of  an  automatic  machine ; 

(c)  no  person  shall  be  allowed  to  enter  the  drying  chamber  in  the  ordinary 
course  of  work; 

(d)  the  machine  shall  be  covered  over  and  the  fumes  drawn  away  from  the 
workers  by  means  of  a  downward  suction  fan  maintained  in  constant  efficiency. 

4.  Dipping  shall  not  be  done  except  in  boxes  so  arranged  that  a  suction  fan 
shall  draw  the  fumes  away  from  the  workers.  ■ 

5.  No  food  shall  be  allowed  to  be  eaten  in  any  room  in  which  bisulphide  of 
carbon  is  used. 

6.  A  suitable  place  for  meals  shall  be  provided. 

7.  All  persons  employed  in  rooms  in  which  bisulphide  of  carbon  is  used  shall 
be  examined  once  a  month  by  the  certifying  surgeon  for  the  district,  who  shall, 
after  May  I,  1898,  have  power  to  order  temporary  or  total  suspension  from 
work. 

8.  No  person  shall  be  employed  in  any  room  in  which  bisulphide  of  carbon 
is  used  contrary  to  the  direction  of  the  certifying  surgeon  given  as  above. 

9.  A  register  in  the  form  which  has  been  prescribed  by  the  secretary  ,'>f  state 
for  use  in  india-rubber  works  shall  be  kept,  and  in  it  the  certifying  surgeon  will 
enter  the  dates  and  result  of  his  visits,  with  the  number  of  persons  examined, 
and  particulars  of  any  directions  given  by  him.  This  register  shall  contain  a 
list  of  all  persons  employed  in  rooms  in  which  bisulphide  of  carbon  is  u*ed,  and 
shall  be  produced  at  any  time  when  required  by  H.  M.  inspector  of  factories  or 
by  the  certifying  surgeon. 

II. — Duties  of  persons  employed. 

10.  No  person  shall  enter  the  drying  room  in  the  ordinary  course  of  work. 
or  perform  dipping  except  in  boxes  provided  with  a  suction  fan  carrying  the 
fumes  away  from  the  workers. 


150 

ii.  No  person  shall  take  any  food  in  any  room  in  which  bisulphide  of  carbon 
is  used. 

12.  After  May  i,  1898,  no  person  shall,  contrary  to  the  direction  of  the  certify- 
ing surgeon,  given  in  pursuance  of  Rule  7,  work  in  any  room  in  which  bisulphide 
of  carbon  is  used. 

13.  All  persons  employed  in  rooms  in  which  bisulphide  of  carbon  is  used 
shall  present  themselves  for  periodic  examination  by  the  certifying  surgeon,  as 
provided  in   Rule  7. 

14.  It  shall  be  the  duty  of  all  persons  employed  to  report  immediately  to  the 
employer  or  foreman  any  defect  which  they  may  discover  in  the  working  of 
the  fan  or  in  any  appliance  required  by  these  rules. 

Arthur  Whitelegge, 
H.  M.  Chief  Inspector  of  Factories. 

Note. — These  rules  are  required  to  be  posted  up  in  conspicuous  places  in  the 
factory  or  workshop  to  which  they  apply,  where  they  may  be  conveniently  read 
by  the  persons  employed.  Any  person  who  willfully  injures  or  defaces  them  is 
liabile  to  a  penalty  not  exceeding  five  pounds  [$24.33].  Occupiers  of  factories 
and  workshops,  and  persons  employed  therein,  who  are  bound  to  observe  these 
rules,  are  liable  to  penalties  in  case  of  noncompliance.  (Factory  and  Workshop 
Act,  1891,  section  9,  and  Factory  and  Workshop  Act,  1901,  sections  85  and  86.) 

Lucifer  Match  Factories  in  Which  White  or  Yellow  Phosphorus  is  Used. 

(Form  384 — January,  1904.) 

In  these  rules  "phosphorous  process"  means  mixing,  dipping,  drying,  boxing, 
and  any  other  work  or  process  in  which  white  or  yellow  phosphorus  is  used; 
and  "person  employed  in  a  phosphorous  process"  means  any  person  who  is  em- 
ployed in  any  room  or  part  of  the  factory  where  such  a  process  is  carried  on. 

"Doubled  dipped  matches"  means  wood  splints,  both  ends  of  which  have  been 
dipped  in  the  igniting  composition. 

"Certifying  surgeon"  means  a  surgeon  appointed  under  the  Factory  and 
Workshop  Acts. 

Any  approval  or  decision  given  by  the  chief  inspector  of  factories  in  pursuance 
of  these  rules  shall  be  given  in  writing,  and  may  at  any  time  be  revoked  by  notice 
in  writing  signed  by  him. 

Rules  5  (a),  5  (b),  6,  8,and  19,  so  far  as  they  affect  the  employment  of  adult 
workers,  shall  not  come  into  force  until  the  1st  day  of  October,  1900. 

Duties  of  employers. 

1.  No  part  of  a  lucifer  match  factory  shall  be  constructed,  structurally  altered 
or  newly  used,  for  the  carrying  on  of  any  phosphorous  process,  unless  the  plans 
have  previously  been  submitted  in  duplicate  to  the  chief  inspector  of  factories, 
and  unless  he  shall  have  approved  the  plans  in  writing,  or  shall  not  within  six 
weeks  from  the  submission  of  the  plans  have  expressed  his  disapproval  in 
writing  of  the  same.  , 

2.  Every  room  in  which  mixing,  dipping,  drying,  or  boxing  is  carried  on  shall 
be  efficiently  ventilated  by  means  of  sufficient  openings  to  the  outer  air,  and 
also  by  means  of  fans,  unless  the  use  of  fans  is  dispensed  with  by  order  in 
writing  of  the  chief  inspector;  shall  contain  at  least  400  cubic  feet  of  air  space 
for  each  person  employed  therein ;  and  in  computing  this  air  space  no  height 
above  14  feet  shall  be  taken  into  account;  shall  be  efficiently  lighted;  shall  have 
a  smooth  and  impervious  floor.  A  floor  laid  with  flagstone  or  hard  bricks  in 
good  repair  shall  be  deemed  to  constitute  a  smooth  and  impervious  floor. 

3.  (a)  The  processes  of  mixing,  dipping,  and  drying  shall  each  be  done  in  a 
separate  and  distinct  room.  The  process  of  boxing  double-dipped  matches  or 
matches  not  thoroughly  dry  shall  also  be  done  in  a  separate  and  distinct  room. 
These  rooms  shall  not  communicate  with  any  other  part  of  the  factory  unless 
there  shall  be  a  ventilated  space  intervening;  nor  shall  they  communicate  with 
one  another,  except  by  means  of  doorways  with  closely  fitting  doors,  which 
doors  shall  be  kept  shut  except  when  some  person  is  passing  through. 


'5' 

(b)  Mixing  shall  not  be  done  except  in  an  apparatus,  or  so  arranged,  and 
ventilated  by  means  of  a  fan,  as  to  prevent  the  entrance  of  fun,,     into  the  air 

of  the  mixing   room. 

(c)  Dipping  shall  not  be  done  except  on  a  slab  provided  with  an  efficient 
exhaust  fan,  and  with  an  air  inlet  between  the  dipper  and  the  slab,  or  with  a 
hood,  so  arranged  as  to  draw  the  fumes  away  from  the  dipper,  and  to  prevent 
them  from  entering  the  air  of  the  dipping  room. 

((/)  Matches  that  have  been  dipped  ami  can  not  at  once  be  removed  to  the 
drying  room  shall  immediately  be  placed  under  a  hood  provided  with  an  efficient 
exhaust  fan,  so  arranged  as  to  prevent  the  fumes  from  entering  the  air  of  the 
room. 

(c)  Matches  shall  not  be  taken  to  a  boxing  room  not  arranged  in  compliance 
with  subsection  (/)  of  this  rule  until  they  arc  thoroughly  dry,  and  matches  shall 
not  be  taken  to  a  boxing  room  that  is  so  arranged  until  they  are  dried  so  far 
as  they  can  be  before  cutting  down  and  boxing. 

(/)  Cutting  down  of  double-dipped  matches  and  boxing  of  matches  not  thor- 
oughly dry  shall  not  be  done  except  at  benches  or  tables  provided  with  an  effi- 
cient exhaust  fan,  so  arranged  as  to  draw  the  fumes  away  from  the  worker  and 
prevent  them  from  entering  the  air  of  the  boxing  room. 

Provided  that  the  foregoing  rule  shall  not  prevent  the  employment  of  any 
mechanical  arrangement  for  carrying  on  any  of  the  above-mentioned  processes 
if  the  same  be  approved  by  the  chief  inspector  as  obviating  the  use  of  hand  labor, 
and  if  it  be  used  subject  to  the  conditions  (if  any)  specified  in  such  approval. 

Provided  further  that  if  the  chief  inspector  shall,  on  consideration  of  the 
special  circumstances  of  any  particular  case,  so  approve  in  writing,  all  or 
any  of  the  provisions  of  the  foregoing  rule  may  be  suspended  for  the  time  named 
in  such  approval  in  writing. 

4.  Vessels  containing  phosphorous  paste  shall,  when  not  actually  in  use,  be  kept 
constantly  covered,  and  closely  fitting  covers  or  damp  flannels  shall  be  provided 
for  the  purpose. 

5.  (a)  For  the  purposes  of  these  rules  the  occupier  shall  appoint,  subject  to 
the  approval  of  the  chief  inspector,  a  duly  qualified  and  registered  dentist,  herein 
termed  the  appointed  dentist. 

It  shall  be  the  duty  of  the  appointed  dentist  to  suspend  from  employment  in 
any  phosphorous  process  any  person  whom  he  finds  to  incur  danger  of  phos- 
phorous necrosis  by  reason  of  defective  conditions  of  teeth  or  exposure  of  the 
jaw. 

(b)  No  person  shall  be  newly  employed  in  a  dipping  room  for  more  than 
twenty-eight  days,  whether  such  days  are  consecutive  or  not,  without  being 
examined  by  the  appointed  dentist. 

(c)  Every  person  employed  in  phosphorous  process,  except  persons  em- 
ployed only  as  boxers  of  wax  vestas  or  other  thoroughly  dry  matches,  shall  be 
examined  by  the  appointed  dentist  at  least  once  in  every  three  months. 

(rf)  Any  person  employed  in  the  factory  complaining  of  toothache,  or  a  pain 
or  swelling  of  the  jaw,  shall  at  once  be  examined  by  the  appointed  dentist. 

(e)  When  the  appointed  dentist  has  reason  to  believe  that  any  person  em- 
ployed in  the  factory  is  suffering  from  inflammation  or  necrosis  of  the  jaw,  or 
is  in  such  a  state  of  health  as  to  incur  danger  of  phosphorous  necrosis,  be  shall 
at  once  direct  the  attention  of  the  certifying  surgeon  and  occupier  to  the  case. 
Thereupon  such  person  shall  at  once  be  examined  by  the  certifying  surgeon. 

6.  No  person  shall  be  employed  in  a  phosphorous  process  after  suspension 
by  the  appointed  dentist;  or  after  the  extraction  of  a  tooth;  or  after  any  opera- 
tion involving  exposure  of  the  jaw  bone:  or  after  inflammation  or  necrosis  of 
the  jaw;  or  after  examination  by  the  appointed  dentist  in  pursuance  of  Rule  5 
(d)  ;  or  after  reference  to  the  certifying  surgeon  in  pursuance  of  Rule  5  (e), 
unless  a  certificate  of  fitness  has  been  given,  after  examination,  by  signed  entry 
in  the  health  register,  by  the  appointed  dentist  or  by  the  certifying  surgeon  in 
cases  referred  to  him  under  Rule  5   (c). 

7.  A  health  register,  in  a  form  approved  by  the  chief  inspector  of  factories, 
shall  be  kept  by  the  occupier,  and  shall  contain  a  complete  list  of  all  persons 
employed  in  each  phosphorous  process,  specifying  with  regard  to  each  such  per- 
son the  full  name,  address,  age  when  first  employed,  and  date  of  first  employment 

The  certifying  surgeon  will  enter  in  the  health  register  the  dates  and  results 


152 

of  his  examinations  of  persons  employed  in  phosphorous  processes,  and  partic- 
ulars of  any  directions  given  by  him. 

The  appointed  dentist  will  enter  in  the  health  register  the  dates  and  results 
of  his  examinations  of  the  teeth  of  persons  employd  in  phosphorous  processes, 
and  particulars  of  any  directions  given  by  him,  and  a  note  of  any  case  referred 
by  him  to  the  certifying  surgeon. 

The  health  register  shall  be  produced  at  any  time  when  required  by  H.  M. 
inspectors  of  factories,  or  by  the  certifying  surgeon,  or  by  the  appointed  dentist. 

8.  Except  persons  whose  names  are  on  the  health  register  mentioned  in  Rule 
7,  and  in  respect  of  whom  certificates  of  fitness  shall  have  been  granted,  no 
person  shall  be  newly  employed  in  any  phosphorous  process  for  more  than 
28  days,  whether  such  days  are  consecutive  or  not,  without  a  certificate  of  fitness, 
granted  after  examination  by  the  certifying  surgeon,  by  signed  entry  in  the 
health  register. 

This  rule  shall  not  apply  to  persons  employed  only  as  boxers  of  wax  vestas 
or  other  thoroughly  dry  matches. 

9.  The  occupier  shall  provide  and  maintain  sufficient  and  suitable  overalls  for 
all  persons  employed  in  phosphorous  processes,  except  for  persons  employed  only 
as  boxers  of  wax  vestas  or  other  thoroughly  dry  matches,  and  shall  cause  them 
to  be  worn  as  directed  in  Rule  20. 

At  the  end  of  every  day's  work  they  shall  be  collected  and  kept  in  proper 
custody  in  a  suitable  place  set  apart  for  the  purpose. 

They  shall  be  thoroughly  washed  every  week,  and  suitable  arrangements  for 
this  purpose  shall  be  made  by  the  occupier. 

10.  The  occupier  shall  provide  and  maintain — 

(a)  a  dining  room,  and 

(b)  a  cloak  room  in  which  workers  can  deposit  clothing  put  off  during  work- 
ing hours. 

11.  No  person  shall  be  allowed  to  prepare  or  partake  of  any  food  or  drink  in 
any  room  in  which  phosphorous  process  is  carried  on,  nor  to  bring  any  food  or 
drink  into  such  room. 

12.  The  occupier  shall  provide  and  maintain  for  the  use  of  the  workers  a 
lavatory,  with  soap,  nailbrushes,  towels,  and  at  least  one  lavatory  basin  for  every 
five  persons  employed  in  any  phosphorous  process. 

Each  such  basin  shall  be  fitted  with  a  waste  pipe.  There  shall  be  a  constant 
supply  of  hot  and  cold  water  laid  on  to  each  basin. 

Or,  in  the  place  of  basins,  the  occupier  shall  provide  and  maintain  enamel  or 
galvanized  iron  troughs,  in  good  repair,  of  a  total  length  of  2  feet  for  every  five 
persons  employed,  fitted  with  waste  pipes  and  without  plugs,  with  a  sufficient 
supply  of  warm  water  constantly  available. 

The  lavatory  shall  be  kept  thoroughly  cleansed,  and  shall  be  supplied  with  a 
sufficient  quantity  of  clean  towels  twice  in  each  day. 

There  shall,  in  addition,  be  means  of  washing  in  close  proximity  to  the  workers 
in  any  department,  if  so  required  in  writing  by  the  inspector  in  charge  of  the 
district. 

13.  The  occupier  shall  provide  for  the  use  of  every  person  employed  in  a 
phosphorous  process  an  antiseptic  mouth  wash  approved  by  the  appointed  dentist, 
and  a  sufficient  supply  of  glasses  or  cups. 

14.  The  floor  of  each  room  in  which  a  phosphorous  process  is  carried  on  shall 
be  cleared  of  waste  at  least  once  a  day,  and  washed  at  least  once  a  week. 

15.  A  printed  copy  of  these  rules  shall  be  given  to  each  person  on  entering 
upon  employment  in  a  phosphorous  process. 

Duties  of  persons  employed. 

16.  No  person  shall  work  in  a  mixing,  dipping,  drying,  or  boxing  room  under 
other  conditions  than  those  prescribed  in  Rule  3. 

17.  No  person  shall  allow  a  vessel  containing  phosphorous  paste  to  remain 
uncovered  except  when  actually  in  use. 

18.  All  persons  employed  in  a  phosphorous  process  shall  present  themselves 
at  the  appointed  times  for  examination  by  the  certifying  surgeon  and  appointed 
dentist,  as  provided  in  Rules  5,  6,  and  8. 

19.  Every   person    employed    in    a    phosphorous    process    and    suffering    from 


153 

toothache  or  swelling  of  the  jaw;  or  having  had  a  tooth  extracted  01  having 
undergone  any  oilier  operation  involving  exposure  of  the  jaw,  ihall  al  once 
inform  the  occupier,  and  shall  noi  resume  employment  in  a  phosphor* 
whli.  ..i  a  certificate  of  Eitneaa  from  the  appointed  dentist,  aa  provided  in  Rule  6. 
No  person  after  suspension  l>y  the  appointed  denti  i,  or  after  reference  to  'lie 
certifying  surgeon,  shall  resume  employment  in  a  phosphorous  process  without 
a  certificate  oi  fitness,  as  provided  in  Rule  6. 

20.  livery  person  employed  in  a  pliosphoion  process  for  whom  the  occupier  is 
required  hy  Rule  0  to  provide  overalls  shall  wear  while  at  work  the  overalls  SO 
provided. 

21.  Every  person  employed  in  a  phosphorous  process  shall,  before  partaking 
of  meals  or  leaving  the  premises,  deposit  the  overalls  in  the  place  appointed 
by  the  occupier  for  the  purpose,  and  shall  thoroughly  wash  in  the  lav. 

22.  No  person  shall  prepare  or  partake  of  food  or  drink  in  any  room  in  which 
a  phosphorous  process  is  carried  on,  or  bring  any  food  or  drink  into  such  room. 

23.  No  person  shall  in  any  way  interfere,  without  the  knowledge  and  concur- 
rence of  the  occupier  or  manager,  with  the  means  and  appliances  provided  for 
the  removal  of  dust  and  fumes. 

24.  Foremen  and  forewomen  shall  report  to  the  manager  any  instance  coming 
under  their  notice  of  a  worker  neglecting  to  observe  these  rules. 

Arthur  Wiiitelegce, 
Chief  Inspector  of  Factories. 
April,  1900. 

Note. — These  rules  must  be  kept  posted  up  in  conspicuous  places  in  the  factory 
to  which  they  apply,  where  they  may  be  conveniently  read  by  the  person  em- 
ployed. Any  person  who  is  bound  to  observe  these  rules  and  fails  to  do  so  or 
acts  in  contravention  of  them  is  liable  to  a  penalty;  and  in  such  cases  the  occu- 
pier also  is  liable  to  a  penalty  unless  he  proves  that  he  has  taken  all  reason- 
able means  by  publishing,  and  to  the  best  of  his  power,  enforcing  the  rules  to 
prevent  the  contravention  or  noncompliance. 

Felt  Hats. 

Whereas  the  manufacture  of  felt  hats  with  the  aid  of  inflammable  solvent  has 
been  certified  in  pursuance  of  section  79  of  the  Factory  and  Workshop  Act,  1901, 
to  be  dangerous,  I  hereby,  in  pursuance  of  the  power  conferred  on  me  by  that 
act,  make  the  following  regulations,  and  direct  that  they  shall  apply  to  all  fac- 
tories and  workshops  in  which  any  inflammable  solvent  is  used  in  the  manu- 
facture of  felt  hats : 

1.  Every  proofing  room  and  every  stove  or  drying  room  in  which  an  inflam- 
mable solvent  is  evaporated  shall  be  thoroughly  ventilated  to  the  satisfaction  of 
the  inspector  for  the  district,  so  as  to  carry  off  as  far  as  possible  the  inflammable 
vapor. 

2.  The  number  of  wet  spirit-proofed  hat  bodies  allowed  to  be  in  a  proofing 
room  at  any  one  time  shall  not  exceed  the  proportion  of  one  hat  for  each  15 
cubic  feet  of  air  space ;  and  in  no  stove,  whilst  the  first  drying  of  any  spirit- 
proofed  hats  is  being  carried  on,  shall  the  number  of  hat  bodies  of  any  kind 
exceed  a  proportion  of  one  hat  for  each  12  cubic  feet  of  air  space. 

A  notice  stating  the  dimensions  of  each  such  room  or  stove  in  cubic  feet  and 
the  number  of  spirit-proofed  hats  allowed  to  be  therein  at  any  one  time  shall 
be  kept  constantly  affixed  in  a  conspicuous  position. 

3.  Spirit-proofed  hats  shall  be  opened  out  singly  and  exposed  for  one  hour 
before  being  placed  in  the  stove.  This  requirement  shall  not  apply  in  the  case 
of  a  stove  which  contains  no  fire  or  artificial  light  capable  of  igniting  inflam- 
mable vapor,  and  which  is  so  constructed  and  arranged  as,  in  the  opinion  of  the 
inspector  for  the  district,  to  present  no  risk  of  such  ignition  from  external  fire 
or  light. 

4.  The  above  rules,  in  so  far  as  they  affect  drying  stoves,  shall  not  apply  to 
the  process  of  drying  hat  bodies  where  the  solvent  is  recovered  in  a  closed  oven 
or  chamber  fitted  with  safe  and  suitable  apparatus  for  the  condensation  of  the 
solvent 


154 

5-  No  person  shall  smoke  in  any  room  or  place  in  which  inflammable  solvent 
is  exposed  to  the  air. 
These  regulations  shall  come  into  force  on  the  ist  day  of  October,  1902. 

A.  Akers-Douglas, 
One  of  His  Majesty's  Principal  Secretaries  of  State. 
Whitehall,  12th  August,  1902. 

Special  Rules  for  the  Handling  of  Dry  and  Drysalted  Hides  and  Skins 
Imported  from  China  or  from  the  West  Coast  of  India. 

(Form  48(3 — February,  1906.) 
Duties  of  occupiers. 

1.  Proper  provision  to  the  reasonable  satisfaction  of  the  inspector  in  charge  of 
the  district  shall  be  made  for  the  keeping  of  the  workmen's  food  and  clothing 
outside  any  room  or  shed  in  which  any  of  the  above-described  hides  or  skins 
are  unpacked,  sorted,  packed,  or  stored. 

2.  Proper  and  sufficient  appliances  for  washing,  comprising  soap,  basins,  with 
water  laid  on,  nailbrushes  and  towels,  shall  be  provided  and  maintained  for  the 
use  of  the  workmen,  to  the  reasonable  satisfaction  of  the  inspector  in  charge 
of  the  district. 

3.  Sticking  plaster,  and  other  requisites  for  treating  scratches  and  slight 
wounds  shall  be  kept  at  hand,  available  for  the  use  of  the  persons  employed. 

4.  A  copy  of  the  appended  notes  shall  be  kept  affixed  with  the  rules. 

Duties  of  persons  employed. 

5.  No  workman  shall  keep  any  food,  or  any  article  of  clothing  other  than 
those  he  is  wearing,  in  any  room  or  shed  in  which  any  of  the  above-described 
hides  or  skins  are  handled. 

He  shall  not  take  any  food  in  any  such  room  or  shed. 

6.  Every  workman  having  any  open  cut  or  scratch  or  raw  surface,  however 
trifling,  upon  his  face,  head,  neck,  arm,  or  hand  shall  immediately  report  the  fact 
to  the  foreman,  and  shall  not  work  on  the  premises  until  the  wound  is  healed 
or  is  completely  covered  by  a  proper  dressing  after  being  thoroughly  washed. 

Arthur  Whitelegge, 
Chief  Inspector   of  Factories. 
Chas.  T.  Ritchie, 
One  of  His  Majesty's  Principal  Secretaries  of  State. 
August,  1901. 

Note  i. — These  rules  must  be  kept  posted  up  in  conspicuous  places  in  the 
factory  to  which  they  apply,  where  they  may  be  conveniently  read  by  the  per- 
sons employed.  Any  person  who  is  bound  to  observe  these  rules  and  fails  to  do 
so,  or  acts  in  contravention  of  them,  is  liable  to  a  penalty;  and  in  such  cases 
the  occupier  also  is  liable  to  a  penalty  unless  he  proves  that  he  has  taken  all 
reasonable  means  by  publishing  and  to  the  best  of  his  power  enforcing  the  rules, 
to  prevent  the  contravention  or  noncompliance. 

Note  2. — The  danger  against  which  these  rules  are  directed  is  that  of  anthrax 
— a  fatal  disease  affecting  certain  animals,  which  may  be  conveyed  from  them 
to  man  by  the  handling  of  hides  of  animals  which  have  died  of  the  disease. 
The  germs  of  the  disease,  (anthrax  sores)  are  found  in  the  dust  and  in  the  sub- 
stance of  the  hide,  and  may  remain  active  for  years.  In  this  country  anthrax  is 
rare,  and  precautions  are  taken  to  prevent  infected  hides  from  coming  into  the 
market,  consequently  there  is  little  danger  in  handling  the  hides  of  animals 
slaughtered  in  the  United  Kingdom ;  but  in  Russia,  China,  and  the  East  Indies, 
and  in  many  other  parts  of  the  world,  the  disease  is  common,  and  infected  hides 
(which  do  not  differ  from  others  in  appearance)  are  often  shipped  to  British 
ports.  Hence  in  handling  foreign  dry  hides  the  above  rules  should  be  carefully 
observed.  Wet  salted  hides  are  free  from  dust  and  less  risk  is  incurred  in  hand- 
ling them.  11      • 

The  disease  is  communicated  to  man  sometimes  by  breathing  or  swallowing 


155 

the   dust   from   an   infected    hide,   1ml    RlUCh    more    usually    by    ill'     poi  ''ii    lodging 

in  some  point  where  the  skin  is  broken    -such  as  a  fresh  scratch  01  cut  >,r  a 
scratched  pimple,  or  even  chapped  hands.    'I  his  happens  mo  I   readily  on  the 

uncovered   parts  of  the   body,   the    hand,   arm,    face,   ,-md    most    frequently   of  all 

on  the  neck — owing  either  to  an  infected  hide  rubbing  again  \\  the  bare  skin,  or 

to  dust  from  such  hide  alighting  on  the   raw     mi  in.        But  a   raw  surface  cov- 
ered by  clothing  is  not   free    from    risk,    for  dust    lodging   upon   the   dottu 
sooner  or  later  work  its  way  to  the  skin  beneath.     Infection  may  also  be  brought 
about  by  rubbing  or  scratching  a  pimple  with  hand  or  nail  carrying  the  anthrax 
poison. 

The  first  symptoms  of  anthrax  is  usually  a  small  inflamed  swelling  like  a  pimple 
or  boil,  often  quite  painless,  which  extends  and  in  a  few  days  becomes  black  at  the 
center  and  surrounded  by  other  "pimples."  The  poison  is  now  liable  to  be 
absorbed  into  the  system  and  will  cause  risk  of  life,  which  can  be  avoided  only 
by  prompt  and  effective  medical  treatment  in  the  early  stage  while  the  poison 
is  still  confined  to  the  pimple.  Hence  it  is  of  the  utmost  importance  that  a 
doctor  should  at  once  be  consulted  if  there  is  any  suspicion  of  infection. 

Note. — Suitable  overalls,  protecting  the  neck  and  arms,  as  well  as  ordinary 
clothing,  add  materially  to  the  safety  of  the  workmen,  and  should  be  provided 
and  worn,  where  practicable,  if  dangerous  hides  are  handled.  They  should  be 
discarded  on  cessation  of  woik.  Similarly  for  the  protection  of  the  hands,  gloves 
should  be  provided  and  worn  where  the  character  of  the  work  permits. 

Wool  and  Hair  Sorting. 

Whereas  the  processes  of  sorting,  willying,  washing,  and  combing  and  carding 
wool,  goat-hair,  and  camel-hair  and  processes  incidental  thereto  have  been 
certified,  in  pursuance  of  section  79  of  the  Factory  and  Workshop  Act,  1901, 
to  be  dangerous : 

I  hereby  in  pursuance  of  the  powers  conferred  on  me  by  that  act  make  the  fol- 
lowing regulations,  and  direct  that  they  shall  apply  to  all  factories  and  workshops 
in  which  the  said  processes  are  carried  on,  and  in  which  the  materials  named 
in  the  schedules  are  used. 

It  shall  be  the  duty  of  the  occupier  to  comply  with  Regulations  1  to  16.  It 
shall  be  the  duty  of  all  persons  employed  to  comply  with  Regulations  17  to  23. 

These  regulations  shall  come  into  force  on  the  1st  of  January,  1906,  except 
that  Regulations  2  and  8  shall  come  into  force  until  the  1st  of  April,  1906. 

Definition. 

For  the  purpose  of  Regulations  2,  3,  and  18  "  opening  of  wool  or  hair  means 
the  opening  of  the  fleece,  including  the  untying  or  cutting  of  the  knots,  or,  if  the 
material  is  not  in  fleece,  the  opening  out  for  looking  over  or  classing  purposes. 

Duties  of  occupiers. 

1.  No  bale  of  wool  or  hair  of  the  kinds  named  in  the  schedules  shall  be  opened 
for  the  purpose  of  being  sorted  or  manufactured,  except  by  men  skilled  in 
judging  the  condition  of  the  material. 

No  bale  of  wool  or  hair  of  the  kinds  named  in  Schedule  A  shall  be  opened 
except  after  thorough  steeping  in  water. 

2.  No  wool  or  hair  of  the  kinds  named  in  Schedule  B  shall  be  opened  except 
(a)  after  steeping  in  water,  or  (b)  over  an  efficient  opening  screen,  with  me- 
chanical exhaust  draft,  in  a  room  set  apart  for  the  purpose,  in  which  no  other 
work  than  opening  is  carried  on. 

For  the  purpose  of  this  regulation,  no  opening  screen  shall  be  deemed  to  be 
efficient  unless  it  complies  with  the  following  conditions : 

(a)  The  area  of  the  screen  shall  in  the  case  of  existing  screens,  be  not  less 
than  11  square  feet,  and  in  the  case  of  screens  hereafter  erected  be  not  less  than 
12  square  feet,  nor  shall  its  length  or  breadth  be  less  than  3T4  feet. 

(b)  At  no  point  of  the  screen  within  18  inches  from  the  center  shall  the 
velocity  of  the  exhaust  draft  be  less  than  100  linear  feet  per  minute. 

3.  All  damaged  wool  or  hair  or  fallen  fleeces  or  skin  wool  or  hair,  if  of  the 


156 

kinds  named  in  the  schedules,  shall  when  opened  be  damped  with  a  disinfectant 
and  washed  without  being  willowed. 

4.  No  wool  or  hair  of  the  kinds  named  in  schedules  B  or  C  shall  be  sorted 
except  over  an  efficient  sorting  board,  with  mechanical  exhaust  draft,  and  in  a 
room  set  apart  for  the  purpose,  in  which  no  work  is  carried  on  other  than  sorting 
and  the  packing  of  the  wool  or  hair  therein. 

No  wool  or  hair  of  the  kinds  numbered  (1)  and  (2)  in  Schedule  A  shall  be 
sorted  except  in  the  damp  state  and  after  being  washed. 

No  damaged  wool  or  hair  of  the  kinds  named  in  schedules  shall  be  sorted 
except  after  being  washed. 

For  the  purpose  of  this  regulation,  no  sorting  board  shall  be  deemed  to  be 
efficient  unless  it  complies  with  the  following  conditions  : 

The  sorting  board  shall  comprise  a  screen  of  open  wirework,  and  beneath  it 
at  all  parts  a  clear  space  not  less  than  3  inches  in  depth.  Below  the  center  of  the 
screen  there  shall  be  a  funnel,  measuring  not  less  than  10  inches  across  the  top, 
leading  to  an  extraction  shaft,  and  the  arrangements  shall  be  such  that  all  dust 
falling  through  the  screen  and  not  carried  away  by  the  exhaust  can  be  swept 
directly  into  the  funnel.  The  draft  shall  be  maintained  in  constant  efficiency 
whilst  the  sorters  are  at  work,  and  shall  be  such  that  not  less  than  75  cubic  feet 
of  air  per  minute  are  drawn  by  the  fan  from  beneath  each  sorting  board. 

5.  No  wool  or  hair  of  the  kinds  named  in  the  schedules  shall  be  willowed 
except  in  an  efficient  willowing  machine,  in  a  room  set  apart  for  the  purpose,  in 
which  no  work  other  than  willowng  s  carred  on. 

For  the  purpose  of  this  regulation,  no  willowing  machine  shall  be  deemed  to 
be  efficient  unless  it  is  provided  with  mechanical  exhaust  draft  so  arranged  as 
to  draw  the  dust  away  from  the  workmen  and  prevent  it  from  entering  the  air 
of  the  room. 

6.  No  bale  of  wool  or  hair  shall  be  stored  in  a  sorting  room;  nor  any  wool 
or  hair  except  in  a  space  effectually  screened  off  from  the  sorting  room. 

No  wool  or  hair  shall  be  stored  in  a  willowing  room. 

7.  In  each  sorting  room,  and  exclusive  of  any  portion  screened  off,  there  shall 
be  allowed  an  air  space  of  at  least  1,000  cubic  feet  for  each  person  employed 
therein. 

8.  In  each  room  in  which  sorting  willowing,  or  combing  is  carried  on,  suit- 
able inlets  from  the  open  air,  or  other  suitable  source,  shall  be  provided  and 
arranged  in  such  a  way  that  no  person  employed  shall  be  exposed  to  a  direct 
draft  from  any  air  inlet  or  to  any  draft  at  a  temperature  of  less  than  50°  F. 

The  temperature  of  the  room  shall  not,  during  working  hours,  fall  below  500  F. 

9.  All  bags  in  which  wool  or  hair  of  the  kinds  named  in  the  schedules  has 
been  imported  shall  be  picked  clean  and  not  brushed. 

10.  All  pieces  of  skin,  scab,  and  clippings  or  shearings  shall  be  removed  daily 
from  the  sorting  room,  and  shall  be  disinfected  or  destroyed. 

11.  The  dust  carried  by  the  exhaust  draft  from  opening  screens,  sorting  boards, 
willowing  or  other  dust  extracting  machines  and  shafts  shall  be  discharged  into 
properly  constructed  receptacles,  and  not  into  the  open  air. 

Each  extracting  shaft  and  the  space  beneath  the  sorting  boards  and  opening 
screens  shall  be  cleaned  out  at  least  once  in  every  week. 

The  dust  collected  as  above,  together  with  the  sweepings  from  the  opening, 
sorting,  and  willowing  rooms,  shall  be  removed  at  least  twice  a  week  and  burned. 

The  occupier  shall  provide  and  maintain  suitable  overalls  and  respirators  to 
be  worn  by  the  persons  engaged  in  collecting  and  removing  the  dust. 

Such  overalls  shall  not  be  taken  out  of  the  works  or  warehouse,  either  for 
washing,  repairs,  or  any  other  purpose,  unless  they  have  been  steeped  over- 
night in  boiling  water  or  a  disinfectant. 

12.  The  floor  of  every  room  in  which  opening,  sorting,  or  willowing  is  carried 
on  shall  be  thoroughly  sprinkled  daily  with  a  disinfectant  solution  after  work 
has  ceased  for  the  day,  and  shall  be  swept  immediately  after  sprinkling. 

13.  The  walls  and  ceilings  of  every  room  in  which  opening,  sorting,  or  willow- 
ing is  carried  on  shall  be  limewashed  at  least  once  a  year,  and  cleansed  at  least 
once  within  every  six  months,  to  date  from  the  time  when  they  were  last 
cleansed. 

14.  The  following  requirements  shall  apply  to  every  room  in  which  unwashed 
wool  or  hair  of  the  kinds  named  in  the  schedules  after  being  opened  for  sorting, 
manufacturing,  or  washing  purposes  is  handled  or  stored. 


'57 

(a)  Sufficient  and  suitable  washing  accommodation  thai]  l"-  provided  outside 
the  rooms  and  maintained  for  the  use  of  all  persons  employed  in  such  rooms. 

The  washing  conveniences  sliall   comprise   SOap,  iiailbr  ir.li<  I,  towels,  and  a< 

one  basin   for  every  live  persons  employed  as  above,  each  basin  being  fitted 

with  a  waste  pipe  and  having  a  constant    supply  of  water  laid  on. 

(b)  Suitable  places  sliall  be  provided  outside  the  rooms  in  which  persons 
employed  in  such  rooms  can  deposit  food  and  clothing  pUl  oil  during  working 
hours. 

(c)  No  person  shall  be  allowed  to  prepare  or  partake  of  food  in  any  such 
room. 

Suitable  and  sufficient  meal  room  accommodation  shall  be  provided  for  workers 
employed   in  such  rooms. 

(d)  No  person  having  any  open  cut  or  sore  shall  be  employed  in  any  such 
room. 

The  requirements  in  paragraph  (c)  shall  apply  also  to  every  room  in  which 
any  wool  or  hair  of  the  kinds  named  in  the  schedules  is  carded  or  stored. 

15.  Requisites  for  treating  scratches  and  slight  wounds  shall  be  kept  at  hand. 

16.  The  occupier  shall  allow  any  H.  M.  inspectors  of  factories  to  take  at  any 
time,  for  the  purpose  of  examination,  sufficient  samples  of  any  wool  or  hair  used 
on  the  premises. 

Duties  of  persons  employed. 

17.  No  bale  of  wool  or  hair  of  the  kinds  named  in  the  schedules  shall  be 
opened  otherwise  than  as  permitted  by  paragraph  1  of  Regulation  1,  and  no  bale 
of  wool  or  hair  of  the  kinds  named  in  Schedule  A  shall  be  opened  except  after 
thorough  steeping  in  water. 

If  on  opening  a  bale  any  damaged  wool  or  hair  of  the  kinds  named  in  the 
schedules  is  discovered,  the  person  opening  the  bale  shall  immediately  report 
the  discovery  to  the  foreman. 

18.  No  wool  or  hair  of  the  kinds  named  in  Schedule  B  shall  be  opened  other- 
wise than  as  permitted  by  Regulation  2. 

19.  No  wool  or  hair  of  the  kinds  named  in  the  schedules  shall  be  sorted  other- 
wise than  as  permitted  by  Regulation  4. 

20.  No  wool  or  hair  of  the  kinds  named  in  the  schedules  shall  be  willowed 
except  as  permitted  by  Regulation  5. 

21.  Every  person  employed  in  a  room  in  which  unwashed  wool  or  hair  of  the 
kinds  named  in  the  schedules  is  stored  or  handled  shall  observe  the  following 
requirements : 

(a)  He  shall  wash  his  hands  before  partaking  of  food,  or  leaving  the  premises. 

(b)  He  shall  not  deposit  in  any  such  room  any  article  of  clothing  put  off  dur- 
ing working  hours. 

He  shall  wear  suitable  overalls  while  at  work",  and  shall  remove  them  before 
partaking  of  food  or  leaving  the  premises. 

(c)  If  he  has  any  open  cut  or  sore,  he  shall  report  the  fact  at  once  to  the  fore- 
man, and  shall  not  work  in  such  a  room. 

No  person  employed  in  any  such  room  or  in  any  room  in  which  wool  or  hair 
of  the  kinds  named  in  the  schedule  is  either  carded  or  stored  shall  prepare  or 
partake  of  any  food  therein,  or  bring  any  food  therein. 

22.  Persons  engaged  in  collecting  or  removing  dust  shall  wear  the  overalls 
as  required  by  Regulation  11. 

Such  overalls  shall  not  be  taken  out  of  the  works  or  warehouse  either  for 
washing,  repairs,  or  any  other  purpose,  unless  they  have  been  steeped  overnight 
in  boiling  water  or  a  disinfectant. 

23.  If  any  fan,  or  any  other  appliance  for  the  carrying  out  of  these  regula- 
tions, is  out  of  order,  any  workman  becoming  aware  of  the  defect  shall  imme- 
diately report  the  fact  to  the  foreman. 

H.  J.  Gladstone. 
One  of  Her  Majesty's  Principal  Secretaries  of  State. 
Home  Office,  Whitehall,  12th  December,  1905. 

Schedule  A. 

(Wool  or  hair  required  to  be  opened  either  after  steeping  or  over  an  efficient 
opening  screen.) 


158 

r.  Van   mohair. 

2.  Persian  locks. 

3.  Persian  or  so-called  Persian  (including  Karadi  and  Bagdad)  if  not  subjected 
to  the  process  of  sorting  or  willowing. 

Schedule  B. 

(Wool  or  hair  required  to  be  opened  either  after  steeping  or  over  an  efficient 
opening  screen.) 

Alpaca. 

Pelitan. 

East   Indian  cashmere. 

Russian  camel  hair. 

Pekin  camel  hair. 

Persian  or  so-called  Persian  (including  Karadi  and  Bagdad)  if  subjected  to 
the  process  of  sorting  or  willowing. 

Schedule  C. 

(Wool  or  hair  not  needing  to  be  opened  over  an  opening  screen  but  required 
to  be  sorted  over  a  board  provided  with  downward  draught.) 

All  mohair  other  than  van  mohair. 

Note. — The  danger  against  which  these  regulations  are  directed  is  that  of 
anthrax — a  fatal  disease  affecting  certain  animals,  which  may  be  conveyed  from 
them  to  man  by  the  handling  of  wools  or  hairs  from  animals  which  have  died 
of  the  disease.  The  germs  of  the  disease  (anthrax  spores)  are  found  in  the  dust 
attaching  to  the  wool,  or  in  the  excrement,  and  in  the  substance  of  the  pieces 
of  skin,  and  may  remain  active  for  years.  In  this  country  and  Australia  anthrax 
is  rare,  consequently  there  is  little  danger  in  handling  wools  from  the  sheep  of 
these  two  countries,  but  in  China,  Persia,  Turkey,  Russia,  the  East  Indies,  and 
in  many  other  parts  of  the  world,  the  disease  is  common,  and  infected  fleeces  or 
locks  (which  may  not  differ  from  others  in  appearance)  are  often  shipped  to 
Great  Britain.  Hence,  in  handling  foreign  dry  wools  and  hair,  the  above  regu- 
lations should  be  carefully  observed.  Greasy  wools  are  comparatively  free 
from  dust  and  therefore  little  risk  is  incurred  in  handling  them.  The  disease  is 
communicated  to  man  sometimes  by  breathing  or  swallowing  the  dust  from  these 
wools  or  hair,  and  sometimes  by  the  poison  lodging  in  some  point  where  the 
skin  is  broken,  such  as  a  fresh  scratch  or  cut,  or  a  scratched  pimple,  or  even 
chapped  hands.  This  happens  more  readily  on  the  uncovered  parts  of  the  body, 
the  hand,  arm,  face,  and  most  frequently  of  all,  on  the  neck,  owing  either  to 
infected  wool  rubbing  against  the  bare  skin,  or  to  dust  from  such  wool  alight- 
ing on  the  raw  surface.  But  a  raw  surface  covered  by  clothing  is  not  free 
from  risk,  for  the  dust  lodging  upon  the  clothes  may  sooner  or  later  work  its 
way  to  the  skin  beneath.  Infection  may  also  be  brought  about  by  rubbing  or 
scratching  a  pimple  with  hand  or  nail  carrying  the  anthrax  poison.  Use  of  the 
nailbrush,  and  frequent  washing  and  bathing  of  the  whole  body,  especially  of  the 
arms,  neck,  and  head,  will  lessen  the  chance  of  contracting  anthrax. 

The  first  symptom  of  anthrax  is  usually  a  small  inflamed  swelling  like  a 
pimple  or  boil — often  quite  painless — which  extends,  and  in  a  few  days  becomes 
black  at  the  center,  and  surrounded  by  other  "pimples."  The  poison  is  now 
liable  to  be  absorbed  into  the  system,  and  will  cause  risk  of  life,  which  can  be 
avoided  only  by  prompt  and  effective  medical  treatment  in  the  early  stage,  while 
the  poison  is  still  confined  to  the  pimple.  Hence,  it  is  of  the  utmost  importance 
that  a  doctor  should  be  at  once  consulted  if  there  is  any  suspicion  of  infection. 

Flax  and  Tow  Spinning  and  Weaving. 

Whereas  the  processes  of  spinning  and  weaving  flax  and  tow  and  the  pro- 
cesses incidental  thereto  have  been  certified  in  pursuance  of  section  79  of  the 
Factory  and  Workshop  Act,  1901,  to  be  dangerous: 

I  hereby  in  pursuance  of  the  powers  conferred  on  me  by  that  act  make  the 
following  regulations,  and  direct  that  they  shall  apply  to  all  factories  in  which 


'59 

the  processes  named  above  are  carried  on,  and  to  'ill  workshops  in  which  the 
processes  of  roughing,  sorting,  or  hand  hackling  of  flax  01  tot*  are  carried  on. 

These  regulations  shall  cfimc  inw,  tone  on  the  i  il  day  oi  February,  1907 
Provided  that  in  rase  of  all  rooms  in  which  roughing  or  hand  hackling  is 
now  carried  on,  and  in  which  there  is  respectively  (a)  no  System  of  local  me- 
chanical exhaust  ventilation,  or  (b)  no  artificial  meant  of  regulating  the  temper* 
aturc,  Regulations  2  and  3,  respectively,  shall  no1  come  into  force  until  the  1  t 
day  of  February,  1908. 

Definitions. 

In  these  regulations — 

"Degrees"  means  degrees  on  the  Fahrenheit  scale. 

"Roughing,  sorting,  hand-hackling,  machine-hackling,  carding,  and  preparing" 
mean  those  processes  in  the  manufacture  of  flax  or  tow. 

It  shall  be  the  duty  of  the  occupier  to  observe  Part  I  of  these  regulations. 

It  shall  be  the  duty  of  all  persons  employed  to  observe  Part  II  of  these 
regulations. 

Part  I. — Duties  of  occupiers. 

1.  In  every  room  in  which  persons  are  employed  the  arrangements  shall  be 
such  that  during  working  hours  the  proportion  of  carbonic  acid  in  the  air  of  the 
room  shall  not  exceed  20  volumes  per  10,000  volumes  of  air  at  any  time  when 
gas  or  oil  is  used  for  lighting  (or  within  one  hour  thereafter)  or  12  volumes  per 
10,000  when  electric  light  is  used  (or  within  one  hour  thereafter)  or  9  vol- 
umes per  10,000  at  any  other  time. 

Provided  that  it  shall  be  a  sufficient  compliance  with  this  regulation  if  the 
proportion  of  carbonic  acid  in  the  air  of  the  room  does  not  exceed  that  of  the 
open  air  outside  by  more  than  5  volumes  per  10,000  volumes  of  air. 

2.  In  every  room  in  which  roughing,  sorting,  or  hand-hackling  is  carried  on, 
and  in  every  room  in  which  machine-hackling,  carding  or  preparing  is  carried  on, 
and  in  which  dust  is  generated  and  inhaled  to  an  extent  likely  to  cause  injury 
to  the  health  of  the  workers,  efficient  exhaust  and  inlet  ventilation  shall  be  pro- 
vided to  secure  that  the  dust  is  drawn  away  from  the  workers  at,  or  as  near  as 
reasonably  possible  to,  the  point  at  which  it  is  generated. 

For  the  purposes  of  this  regulation  the  exhaust  ventilation  in  the  case  of 
hand-hackling,  roughing,  or  sorting  shall  not  be  deemed  to  be  efficient  if  the 
exhaust  opening  at  the  back  of  the  hackling  pins  measures  less  than  4  inches 
across  in  any  direction,  or  has  a  sectional  area  of  less  than  50  square  inches, 
or  if  the  linear  velocity  of  the  draught  passing  through  it  is  less  than  400  feet 
per  minute  at  any  point  within  a  sectional  area  of  50  square  inches. 

3.  In  every  room  in  which  hand-hackling,  roughing,  sorting,  machine-hackling, 
carding,  or  preparing  is  carried  on,  an  accurate  thermometer  shall  be  kept  af- 
fixed; and  the  arrangements  shall  be  such  that  the  temperature  of  the  room  shall 
not  at  any  time  during  working  hours  where  hand-hackling  roughing,  or  machine- 
hackling  is  carried  on,  fall  below  50  degrees,  or  where  sorting,  carding,  or  pre- 
paring is  carried  on  below  55  degrees ;  and  that  no  person  employed  shall  be 
exposed  to  a  direct  draft  from  any  air  inlet,  or  to  any  draft  at  a  temperature  of 
less  than  50  degrees. 

Provided  that  it  shall  be  a  sufficient  compliance  with  this  regulation  if  the 
heating  apparatus  be  put  into  operation  at  the  commencement  of  work,  and  if 
the  required  temperature  be  maintained  after  the  expiration  of  one  hour  from 
the  commencement  of  work. 

4.  In  every  room  in  which  wet  spinning  is  carried  on,  or  in  which  artificial 
humidity  of  air  is  produced  in  aid  of  manufacture,  a  set  of  standardized  wet  and 
dry  bulb  thermometers  shall  be  kept  affixed  in  the  center  of  the  room  or  in  such 
other  position  as  may  be  directed  by  the  insepctor  of  the  district  by  notice  in 
writing,  and  shall  be  maintained  in  correct  working  order. 

Each  of  the  above  thermometers  shall  be  read  between  10  and  11  a.  m.  on 
every  day  that  any  person  is  employed  in  the  room,  and  again  between  3  and 
4  p.  m.  on  every  day  that  any  person  is  employed  in  the  room  after  1  p.  m., 
and  each  reading  shall  be  at  once  entered  on  the  prescribed  form. 


i6o 

The  form  shall  be  hung  up  near  the  thermometers  to  which  it  relates,  and 
shall  be  forwarded,  duly  tilled  in,  at  the  end  of  each  calendar  month  to  the  in- 
spector of  the  district.  Provided  that  this  part  of  this  regulation  shall  not  apply 
to  any  room  in  which  the  difference  of  reading  between  the  wet  and  dry  bulb 
thermometers  rs  never  less  than  4  degrees,  if  notice  of  intention  to  work  on  that 
system  has  been  given  in  the  prescribed  form  to  the  inspectors  for  the  district, 
and  a  copy  of  the  notice  is  kept  affixed  in  the  room  to  which  it  applies. 

5.  The  humidity  of  the  atmosphere  of  any  room  to  which  Regulation  4  applies 
shall  not  at  any  time  be  such  that  the  difference  between  the  readings  of  the 
wet  and  dry  bulb  thermometers  is  less  than  2  degrees. 

6.  No  water  shall  be  used  for  producing  humidity  of  the  air,  or  in  wet-spinning 
troughs,  which  is  liable  to  cause  injury  to  the  health  of  the  persons  employed 
or  to  yield  effluvia ;  and  for  the  purpose  of  this  regulation  any  water  which  ab- 
sorbs from  acid  solution  of  permanganate  of  potash  in  four  hours  at  60  degrees 
more  than  0.5  grain  of  oxygen  per  gallon  of  water,  shall  be  deemed  to  be  liable 
to  cause  injury  to  the  health  of  the  persons  employed. 

7.  Efficient  means  shall  be  adopted  to  prevent  the  escape  of  steam  from  wet- 
spinning  troughs. 

8.  The  pipes  used  for  the  introduction  of  steam  into  any  room  in  which  the 
temperature  exceeds  70  degrees  or  for  heating  the  water  in  any  wet-spinning 
trough,  shall,  so  far  as  they  are  within  the  room  and  not  covered  by  water,  be  as 
small  in  diameter  and  as  limited  in  length  as  is  reasonably  practicable,  and  shall 
be  effectively  covered  with  nonconducting  material. 

9.  Efficient  splash  guards  shall  be  provided  and  maintained  on  all  wet-spin- 
ning frames  of  2^4  inch  pitch  and  over,  and  on  all  other  wet-spinning  frames 
unless  waterproof  skirts,  and  bibs  of  suitable  material  are  provided  by  the 
occupier  and  worn  by  the  workers. 

Provided  that  if  the  chief  inspector  is  satisfied  with  regard  to  premises  in  use 
prior  to  30th  June,  1905,  that  the  structural  conditions  are  such  that  splash  guards 
can  not  conveniently  be  used,  he  may  suspend  the  requirements  as  to  splash 
guards.  Such  suspension  shall  only  be  allowed  by  certificate  in  writing,  signed 
by  the  chief  inspector,  and  shall  be  subject  to  such  conditions  as  may  be  stated 
in  the  certificate. 

10.  The  floor  of  every  wet-spinning  room  shall  be  kept  in  sound  condition, 
and  drained  so  as  to  prevent  retention  or  accumulation  of  water. 

11.  There  shall  be  provided  for  all  persons  employed  in  any  room  in  which 
wet-spinning  is  carried  on,  or  in  which  artificial  humidity  of  air  is  produced 
in  air  of  manufacture,  suitable  and  convenient  accommodation  in  which  to  keep 
the  clothing  taken  off  before  starting  work,  and  in  the  case  of  building  erected 
after  30th  June,  1905,  in  which  the  difference  between  the  readings  of  the  wet 
and  dry  bulb  thermometers  is  at  any  time  less  than  4  degrees,  such  accommoda- 
tion shall  be  provided  in  cloak-rooms  ventilated  and  kept  at  a  suitable  tempera- 
ture and  situated  in  or  near  the  workrooms  in  question. 

12.  Suitable  and  efficient  respirators  shall  be  provided  for  the  use  of  the 
persons  employed  in  machine-hackling,  preparing,  and  carding. 

Part  II. — Duties  of  persons  employed. 

13.  All  persons  employed  on  wet-spinning  frames  without  efficient  splash 
guards  shall  wear  the  skirts  and  bibs  provided  by  the  occupier  in  pursuance  of 
Regulation  9. 

14.  No  person  shall  in  any  way  interfere,  without  the  concurrence  of  the 
occupier  or  manager,  with  the  means  and  appliances  provided  for  ventilation, 
or  for  the  removal  of  dust,  or  for  the  other  purposes  of  these  regulations. 

H.  J.  Gladstone, 
One  of  His  Majesty's  Principal  Secretaries  of  State. 
Home  Office,  Whitehall,  20th  February,  1906. 

File  Cutting  by  Hand. 

Whereas  the  process  of  file  cutting  by  hand  has  been  certified  in  pursuance  of 
section  79  of  the  Factory  and  Workshop  Act,  1901,  to  be  dangerous: 
I  hereby,  in  pursuance  of  the  powers  conferred  on  me  by  that  act,  make  the 


i6i 

following  regulations,  and  direct  that  they  shall  apply  to  ill  factor!*    and  work- 
shops (including  tenement  factories  and  tenement  workshops)  or  parts  thereof 

in  which  the  process  of  file  cutting  by  hand  is  carried  on  :     Provided  thai  the  '  In'f 
inspector  of   factories   may  by   certificate   in   writing  exempt    from   all   or  any   of 
these  regulations  any  factory  or  workshop  in  wlm  h   In-  is  Satisfied   thai   the  beds 
used  are  of  such  composition  as  not  to  entail  danger  to  the  health  of  the  ]<■ 
employed. 

1.  The  number  of  stocks  in  any  room  shall  not  !><■  more  than  one  Stock  for 
every  350  cubic  feet  of  air  space  in  the  room;  and  in  calculating  air  'pace  for 
the  purpose  of  this  regulation  any  space  more  than  10  feet  above  the  floor  of 
the  room  shall  not  be  reckoned. 

2.  After  the  1st  day  of  January,  1904,  the  distance  between  the  Stocks  mea  Bred 
from  the  center  of  one  stock  to  the  center  of  the  next  shall  not  be  less  than  2 
feet  6  inches,  and  after  the  1st  day  of  January,  1905,  the  said  distance  shall  not 
be  less  than  3  feet. 

3.  Every  room  shall  have  a  substantial  floor,  the  whole  of  which  shall  be  cov- 
ered with  a  washable  material,  save  that  it  shall  be  optional  to  leave  a  space  not 
exceeding  6  inches  in  width  round  the  base  of  each  stock. 

The  floor  of  every  room  shall  be  kept  in  good  repair. 

4.  Efficient  inlet  and  outlet  ventilators  shall  be  provided  in  every  room.  The 
inlet  ventilators  shall  be  so  arranged  and  placed  as  not  to  cause  a  direct  draft  of 
incoming  air  to  fall  on  the  workmen  employed  at  the  stocks. 

The  ventilators  shall  be  kept  in  good  repair  and  in  working  order. 

5.  No  person  shall  interfere  with  or  impede  the  working  of  the  ventilators. 

6.  Sufficient  and  suitable  washing  conveniences  shall  be  provided  and  main- 
tained for  the  use  of  the  file  cutters.  The  washing  conveniences  shall  be  under 
cover  and  shall  comprise  at  least  one  fixed  basin  for  every  ten  or  less  stocks. 
Every  basin  shall  be  fitted  with  a  waste  pipe  discharging  over  a  drain  or  into 
some  receptacle  of  a  capacity  at  least  equal  to  one  gallon  for  every  file  cutter 
using  the  basin.  Water  shall  be  laid  on  to  every  basin  either  from  the  main  or 
from  a  tank  of  a  capacity  of  not  less  than  V/2  gallons  to  every  worker  supplied 
from  such  tank.  A  supply  of  clean  water  shall  be  kept  in  the  said  tank  while 
work  is  going  on  at  least  sufficient  to  enable  every  worker  supplied  from  such 
tank  to  wash. 

7.  The  walls  and  ceiling  of  every  room,  except  such  parts  as  are  painted  or 
varnished  or  made  of  glazed  brick,  shall  be  limewashed  once  in  every  six  months 
ending  the  30th  of  June  and  once  in  every  six  months  ending  the  31st  of 
December. 

8.  The  floor  and  such  parts  of  the  walls  and  ceiling  as  are  not  limewashed 
and  the  benches  shall  be  cleansed  once  a  week. 

9.  If  the  factory  or  workshop  is  situated  in  a  dwelling  house  the  work  of  file 
cutting  shall  not  be  carried  on  in  any  room  which  is  used  as  a  sleeping  place 
or  for  cooking  or  eating  meals. 

10.  Every  file  cutter  shall  when  at  work  wear  a  long  apron  reaching  from  the 
shoulders  and  neck  to  below  the  knees.  The  apron  shall  be  kept  in  a  cleanly 
state. 

11.  A  copy  of  these  regulations  and  an  abstract  of  the  provisions  of  the  Factory 
and  Workshop  Act,  1901,  shall  be  kept  affixed  in  the  factory  or  workshop  in  a 
conspicuous  place. 

12.  It  shall  be  the  duty  of  the  occupier  to  carry  out  Regulations  1,  2,  3.  4.  6. 
7,  and  11;  except  that,  in  any  room  in  a  tenement  factory  or  tenement  workshop 
which  is  let  to  more  than  one  occupier,  it  shall  be  the  duty  of  the  owner  to 
carry  out  these  regulations,  except  the  last  clause  of  Regulation  6,  which  shall 
be  carried  out  by  the  occupiers. 

It  shall  be  the  duty  of  the  occupier  or  occupiers  to  carry  out  Regulation  8. 
It  shall  be  the  duty  of  the  occupier  or  occupiers  and  of  every  workman  to 
observe  Regulations  5,  9,  and  10. 

These  regulations  shall  come  into  force  on  the  1st  day  of  September,  1903. 

A.  Akers-Douglas, 
One  of  His  Majesty's  Principal  Secretaries  of  State. 

Home  Office,  Whitehall,  igth  June,  1903. 


1 62 

Special  Rules  for  the  Bottling  of  Aerated  Water. 

(Form  273 — A  1-3-01.) 

Duties  of  occupiers. 

1.  They  shall  provide  all  bottlers  with  face  guards,  masks,  or  veils  of  wire 
gauze. 

They  shall  provide  all  wirers,  sighters,  and  labelers  with  face  guards,  masks,  or 
veils  of  wire  gauze,  or  goggles. 

2.  They  shall  provide  all  bottlers  with  full-length  gauntlets  for  both  arms. 
They  shall  provide  all  wirers,  sighters,  and  labelers  with  gauntlets  for  both 

arms,  protecting  at  least  half  of  the  palm  and  the  space  between  the  thumb  and 
forefinger. 

3.  They  shall  cause  all  machines  for  bottling  to  be  constructed,  so  placed, 
or  so  fenced,  as  to  prevent  as  far  as  possible,  during  the  operation  of  filling  or 
corking,  a  fragment  of  a  bursting  bottle  from  striking  any  bottler,  wirer,  sighter, 
labeler,  or  washer. 

Duties  of  persons  employed. 

4.  All  bottlers  shall,  while  at  work,  wear  face  guards,  masks,  or  veils  of  wire 
gauze. 

All  wirers,  sighters,  and  labelers  shall,  while  at  work,  wear  on  both  arms 
gauntlets  protecting  at  least  half  of  the  palm  and  the  space  between  the  thumb 
and  forefinger;  except  labelers  when  labeling  bottles  standing  in  cases. 

Arthur  Whitelegge, 
H.  M.  Inspector  of  Factories. 
August,  1897. 

These  rules  are  required  to  be  posted  up  in  conspicuous  places  in  the  factory 
or  workshop  to  which  they  apply,  where  they  may  be  conveniently  read  by  the 
persons  employed  therein,  who  are  bound  to  observe  any  special  rules,  are  liable 
to  a  penalty  of  five  pounds  [$24.33].  Occupiers  of  factories  and  workshops,  and 
persons  employed  therein,  who  are  bound  to  observe  any  special  rules,  are  liable 
to  penalties  for  non-compliance  (Factory  and  Workshop  Act,  1891,  sections  9 
and  11). 

The  employer  is  required  to  provide  the  articles  mentioned  in  the  rules,  and 
to  take  all  reasonable  precautions  to  the  best  of  his  power  to  enforec  their  use, 
but  the  responsibility  for  the  actual  wearing  of  them  rests  with  the  person 
employed. 

Spinning  by  Self-Acting  Mules. 

Whereas  certain  machinery  used  in  the  process  of  spinning  in  textile  factories, 
and  known  as  self-acting  mules,  has  been  certified  in  pursuance  of  section  79  of 
the  Factory  and  Workshop  Act,  1901,  to  be  dangerous  to  life  and  limb: 

I  hereby,  in  pursuance  of  the  powers  conferred  on  me  by  that  act,  make  the 
following  regulations,  and  direct  that  they  shall  apply  to  all  factories  or  parts 
thereof  in  which  the  process  of  spinning  by  means  of  self-acting  mules  is  car- 
ried on : 

1.  In  these  regulations  the  term  "minder"  means  the  person  in  charge  of  a 
self-acting  mule  for  the  time  being. 

2.  Save  as  hereinafter  provided  it  shall  be  the  duty  of  the  occupier  of  a  factory 
to  observe  Part  I  of  these  regulations;  provided  that  it  shall  be  the  duty  of  the 
owner  (whether  or  not  he  is  one  of  the  occupiers)  of  a  tenement  factory  to 
observe  Part  I  of  these  regulations,  except  so  far  as  relates  to  such  parts  of  the 
machinery  as  are  supplied  by  the  occupier. 

It  shall  be  the  duty  of  the  persons  employed  to  observe  Part  II  of  these 
regulations,  but  it  shall  be  the  duty  of  the  occupier,  for  the  purpose  of  enforcing 
their  observance,  to  keep  a  copy  of  the  regulations  in  legible  characters  affixed 
in  every  mule  room,  in  a  conspicuous  position  where  they  may  be  conveniently 
read. 


Part   I. — Duties  of  occupiers. 

3.  After  January  1st,  [906,  the  following  part*  of  <vcry  .-It  acting  Blttlc  lhall 
be  securely  fenced  as  far  as  reasonably  practicable.  UnleU  it  <an  be  ihowil  that 
by  their  position  or  construction  they  are  equally  Baft  to  every  pel  lOfl  em- 
ployed as  they  would  be  if  securely  fenced. 

(a)  Back  shaft  scrolls  and  carrier  pulleys  and  draw  band  pulleys. 

(b)  Front  and  back  carriage  wheels. 

(c)  Faller-stops. 

(d)  Quadrant  pinions. 

(r)   Back  of  deadstocks,  including  rim  pulleys  and  taikng-in 
(f)   Rim  band   tightening  pulleys,  other  than   plate   wheels,   connected   with   a 
self-acting  mule  erected  after  January  1st,  1906. 

Part  II. — Duties  of  persons  employed. 

4.  It  shall  be  the  duty  of  the  minder  of  every  self-acting  mule  to  take  all 
reasonable  care  to  ensure : 

(a)  That  no  child  cleans  any  part  or  under  any  part  thereof  whilst  the  mule 
is  in  motion  by  the  aid  of  mechanical  power. 

(b)  That  no  woman,  young  person,  or  child  works  between  the  fixed  and 
traversing  parts  thereof  whilst  the  mule  is  in  motion  by  the  aid  of  mechanical 
power. 

(c)  That  no  person  is  in  the  space  between  the  fixed  and  traversing  parts 
thereof  unless  the  mule  is  stopped  on  the  outward  run. 

5.  No  self-acting  mule  shall  be  started  or  restarted  except  by  the  minder  or 
at  his  express  orders,  nor  until  he  has  ascertained  that  no  person  is  in  the  space 
between  the  fixed  and  traversing  parts  thereof. 

A.  Akers-Douglas, 
One  of  His  Majesty's  Principal  Secretaries  of  State. 
Home  Office,  Whitehall,  17th  October,  1905. 

Loading  Goods  on  Docks  and  Wharves. 

Whereas  the  processes  of  loading,  unloading,  moving,  and  handling  goods  in, 
on,  or  at  any  dock,  wharf,  or  quay,  and  the  processes  of  loading,  unloading,  and 
coaling  any  ship  in  any  dock,  harbor,  or  canal  have  been  certified  in  pursuance 
of  section  79  of  the  Factory  and  Workshop  Act,  1901,  to  be  dangerous: 

I  hereby,  in  pursuance  of  the  powers  conferred  on  me  by  that  act  make  the 
following  regulations  for  the  protection  of  persons  employed  in  the  processes  or 
in  any  of  them,  and  direct  that  they  shall  apply  to  all  docks,  wharves,  quays, 
and  ships  as  aforesaid. 

These  regulations  shall  come  into  force  on  the  1st  of  January,  1905,  except 
that  so  much  of  Regulations  6  and  8  as  require  structural  alterations  shall  come 
into  force  on  the  1st  of  January,  1908. 

Nothing  in  Parts  II  to  VI,  inclusive,  of  these  regulations  shall  apply  to  the 
unloading  of  fish  from  a  vessel  employed  in  the  catching  of  fish. 

The  secretary  of  state  may  by  order  in  writing  exempt  from  all  or  any  of  the 
regulations  and  for  such  time  and  subject  to  such  conditions  as  he  may  prescribe 
any  docks,  wharves,  or  quays  in  respect  of  which  application  for  such  exemption 
shall  have  been  made  to  him  by  the  department  of  agriculture  and  technical 
instruction  for  Ireland  or  by  the  congested  districts  board  for  Ireland. 

Definitions. 

In  these  regulations : 

"Processes"  means  the  processes  above  mentioned;  or  any  of  them. 

"Person  employed"  means  a  person  employed  in  the  above  processes  or  any  of 
them. 

"Shallow  canal"  includes  any  of  the  following  parts  of  a  canal,  canalized 
river,  montidal  river,  or  inland  navigation : 

(a)  Any  part  having  no  means  of  access  to  tidal  waters  except  through  a 
lock  not  exceeding  ninety  feet  in  length ; 


164 

(b)  Any  part  not  in  frequent  use  for  the  processes;  and 

(c)  Any  part  at  which  the  depth  of  water  within  fifteen  feet  of  the  edge  does 
not  ordinarily  exceed  five  feet. 

Duties. 

It  shall  be  the  duty  of  the  person  having  the  general  management  and  control 
of  a  dock,  wharf,  or  quay  to  comply  with  Part  I  of  these  regulations;  provided 
that  if  any  other  person  has  the  exclusive  right  to  occupation  of  any  part  of  the 
dock,  wharf,  or  quay,  and  has  the  general  management  and  control  of  such  part 
the  duty  in  respect  of  that  part  shall  devolve  upon  that  other  person;  and 
further  provided  that  this  part  of  these  regulations  shall  no  apply  to  any 
shallow  canal. 

It  shall  be  the  duty  of  the  owner,  or  officer  in  charge  of  a  ship  to  com- 
ply with  Part  II  of  these  regulations. 

It  shall  be  the  duty  of  the  owner  of  machinery  or  plant  used  in  the  processes, 
and  in  the  case  of  machinery  or  plant  carried  on  board  a  ship  not  being  a  ship 
registered  in  the  United  Kingdom  it  shall  also  be  the  duty  of  the  master  of 
such  ship,  to  comply  with  Part  III  of  these  regulations. 

It  shall  be  the  duty  of  every  person  who  by  himself,  his  agents,  or  workmen 
carries  on  the  processes,  and  of  all  agents,  workmen,  and  persons  employed  by 
him  in  the  processes,  to  comply  with  Part  IV  of  these  regulations. 

It  shall  be  the  duty  of  all  persons,  whether  owners,  occupiers,  or  persons  em- 
ployed, to  comply  with  Part  V  of  these  regulations. 

Part  VI  of  these  regulations  shall  be  complied  with  by  the  persons  on  whom 
the  duty  is  placed  in  that  part. 


1.  The  following  parts  of  every  dock,  wharf,  or  quay,  as  far  as  is  practicable, 
having  regard  to  the  traffic  and  working,  be  securely  fenced  so  that  the  height 
of  the  fence  shall  be  in  no  place  less  than  two  feet  six  inches,  and  the  fencing 
shall  be  maintained  in  good  condition  ready  for  use. 

(a)  All  breaks,  dangerous  corners,  and  other  dangerous  parts  of  edges  of  a 
dock,  wharf,  or  quay. 

(b)  Both  sides  of  such  footways  over  bridges,  caissons,  and  dock  gates  as  are 
in  general  use  by  persons  employed,  and  each  side  of  the  entrance  at  each  end 
of  such  footway  for  a  sufficient  distance  not  exceeding  five  yards. 

2.  Provision  for  the  rescue  from  drowning  of  persons  employed  shall  be  made 
and  maintained,  and  shall  include: 

(a)  A  supply  of  life-saving  appliances,  kept  in  readiness  on  the  wharf  or 
quay,  which  shall  be  reasonably  adequate  having  regard  to  all  the  circumstances. 

3.  All  places  in  which  persons  employed  are  employed  at  night,  and  any  dan- 
gerous parts  of  the  regular  road  or  way  over  a  dock,  wharf,  or  quay,  forming  the 
approach  to  any  such  place  from  the  nearest  highway,  shall  be  efficiently  lighted. 

Provided  that  the  towing  path  of  a  canal  or  canalized  river  shall  not  be  deemed 
to  be  "an  approach"  for  the  purpose  of  this  regulation.  z 


4.  If  a  ship  is  lying  at  a  wharf  or  quay  for  the  purpose  of  loading  or  unloading 
or  coaling  there  shall  be  means  of  access  for  the  use  of  persons  employed  at  such 
times  as  they  have  to  pass  from  the  ship  to  the  shore  or  from  the  shore  to  the 
ship  as  follows : 

(a)  Where  a  gangway  is  reasonably  practicable  a  gangway  not  less  than  22 
inches  wide,  properly  secured,  and  fenced  throughout  on  each  side  to  a  clear 
height  of  two  feet  nine  inches  by  means  of  upper  and  lower  rails,  taut  ropes  or 
chains,  or  by  other  equally  safe  means. 

(b)  In  other  cases  a  secure  ladder  of  adequate  length. 

Provided  that  nothing  in  this  regulation  shall  be  held  to  apply  to  cargo  stages 
or  cargo  gangways,  if  other  proper  means  of  access  is  provided  in  conformity 
with  these  regulations. 

Provided  that  as  regards  any  sailing  vessel  not  exceeding  250  tons  net  reg- 


i6s 

istered  tonnage  and  any  steam  vessel  nol  exceeding  r.so  toill  v,*>>  I  registered 
tonnage  this  regulation  shall  nol  apply  if  and  while  the  condition 

that  it  is  possible   without  undue  risk   to  pass  to  and   from  the   'hip   without   the 

aid  of  any  special  appliances. 

5.  If  a  ship  is  alongside  any  other  ship,  vessel,  or  boat,  and  persons  employed 

have  to  pass  from  one  to  tin-  other,  safe  means  of  aCCC  hall  he  provided  for 
their  use,  unless  the  conditions  are  such  that  it  i  poi  ible  to  pa  from  one  to 
the  other  without  undue  risk  without  the  aid  of  any  special  appliance. 

If  one  of  such  ships,  vessel,  or  boats  is  a  sailing  barge,  flat,  keel,  lighter  or  other 
similar  vessel  of  relatively  low  free  board  the  means  of  access  shall  he  pro- 
vided by  the  ship  which  has  the  higher  free  hoard. 

6.  If  the  depth  from  the  top  of  the  coamings  to  the  bottom  of  the  hold  ex- 
ceeds six  feet  there  shall  he  maintained  safe  means  of  access  by  ladder  or  steps 
from  the  deck  to  the  hold  in  which  work  is  being  carried  on,  with  lecure  hand- 
hold and  foot-hold  continued  to  the  top  of  the  coamings. 

In  particular  such  access  shall  not  be  deemed  to  be  safe : 

(a)  Unless  the  ladders  between  the  lower  decks  arc  in  the  same  line  as  the 
ladder  from  the  main  deck,  if  the  same  is  practicable  having  regard  to  the  posi- 
tion of  the  lower  hatchway  or  hatchways. 

(b)  Unless  the  cargo  is  stowed  sufficiently  far  from  the  ladder  to  leave  at  each 
rung  of  the  ladder  sufficient  room  for  a  man's  feet. 

(c)  If  there  is  not  room  to  pass  between  a  winch  and  the  coamings  at  the 
place  where  the  ladder  leaves  the  deck. 

(d)  If  the  ladder  is  recessed  under  the  deck  more  than  is  reasonably  necessary 
to  keep  the  ladder  clear  of  the  hatchway. 

7.  When  the  processes  are  being  carried  on  between  one  hour  after  sunset  and 
one  hour  before  sunrise  («)  the  places  in  the  hold  and  on  the  decks  where  work 
is  being  carried  on,  and  (b)  the  means  of  access  provided  in  pursuance  of  Reg- 
ulations 4  and  5,  shall  be  efficiently  lighted,  due  regard  being  had  to  the  safety 
of  the  ship  and  cargo,  of  all  persons  employed  and  of  the  navigation  of  other 
vessels  and  to  the  duly  approved  by-laws  or  regulations  of  any  authority  having 
power  by  statute  to  make  by-laws  or  regulations  subject  to  approval  by  some 
other  authority. 

8.  All  iron  fore  and  aft  beams  and  thwart  ship  beams  used  for  hatchway  cov- 
ering shall  have  suitable  gear  for  lifting  them  on  and  off  without  it  being  neces- 
sary for  any  person  to  go  upon  them  to  adjust  such  gear. 


9.  All  machinery  and  chains  and  other  gear  used  in  hoisting  or  lowering  in 
connection  with  the  processes  shall  have  been  tested,  and  shall  be  periodically 
examined.  All  such  chains  shall  be  effectually  softened  by  anneaing  or  firing 
when  necessary,  and  all  half-inch  or  smaller  chains  in  general  use  shall  be  so 
annealed  or  fired  once  in  every  six  months. 

If  the  chains  are  part  of  the  outfit  carried  by  a  seagoing  ship  it  shall  be  a  suf- 
ficient compliance  with  this  regulation  as  regards  softening  by  annealing  or  firing 
of  half-inch  or  smaller  chains,  that  no  such  chains  shall  be  used  unless  they  have 
been  so  annealed  or  fired  within  six  months  preceding. 

As  regards  chains,  the  safe-loads  indicated  by  the  test  the  date  of  last  an- 
nealing, and  any  other  particulars  prescribed  by  the  secretary  of  state,  shall  be 
entered  in  a  register  which  shall  be  kept  on  the  premises,  unless  some  other 
place  has  been  approved  in  writing  by  the  chief  inspector. 

10.  All  motors,  cog-wheels,  chain  and  friction  gearing,  shafting  and  live  elec- 
tric conductors  used  in  the  processes  shall  (unless  it  can  be  shown  that  by  their 
position  and  construction  they  are  equally  safe  to  every  person  employed  as  they 
would  be  if  securely  fenced)  be  securely  fenced  so  far  as  is  practicable  without 
impeding  the  safe  working  of  the  ship  without  infringing  any  requirement 
of  the  board  of  trade. 

11.  The  lever  controlling  the  link  motion  reversing  gear  of  a  crane  or  winch 
used  in  the  processes  shall  be  provided  with  a  suitable  spring  or  other  locking 
arrangement. 

12.  Every  shore  crane  used  in  the  processes  shall  have  the  safe-load  plainly 
marked  upon  it,  and  if  so  constructed  that  the  jib  may  be  raised  or  lowered 


i66 

either  shall  have  attached  to  it  an  automatic  indicator  of  safe-loads  or  shall 
have  marked  upon  it  a  table  showing  the  safe-loads  at  the  corresponding  inclina- 
tions of  the  jib. 

13.  The  driver's  platform  on  every  crane  or  tip  driven  by  mechanical  power 
and  used  in  the  processes  shall  be  securely  fenced,  and  shall  be  provided  with 
safe  means  of  access. 

14.  Adequate  measures  shall  be  taken  to  prevent  exhaust  steam  from  any  crane 
or  which  obscuring  any  part  of  the  decks,  gangways,  wharf,  or  quay,  where 
any  person  is  employed. 


15.  No  machinery  or  gear  used  in  the  processes,  other  than  a  crane,  shall  be 
loaded  beyond  the  safe-load;  nor  a  crane,  unless  secured  with  the  written  per- 
mission of  the  owner  by  plates  or  chains  or  otherwise. 

No  load  shall  be  left  suspended  from  a  crane,  winch,  or  other  machine  unless 
there  is  a  competent  person  actually  in  charge  of  the  machine  while  the  load  is  so 
left. 

16.  A  boy  under  16  shall  not  be  employed  as  driver  of  a  crane  or  winch,  or  to 
give  signals  to  a  driver,  or  to  attend  to  cargo  falls  on  winch-ends  or  winch- 
bodies. 

17.  Where  in  connection  with  the  processes  goods  are  placed  on  a  wharf  or 
quay  other  than  a  wharf  or  quay  on  a  shallow  canal: 

(a)  A  clear  passage  leading  to  the  means  of  access  to  the  ship  required  by 
Regulation  4  shall  be  maintained  on  the  wharf  or  quay;  and 

(b)  If  any  space  is  left  along  the  edge  of  the  wharf  or  quay,  it  shall  be  at  least 
three  feet  wide  and  clear  of  all  obstructions  other  than  fixed  structures,  plant 
and  appliances  in  use. 

18.  No  deck-stage  or  cargo-stage  shall  be  used  in  the  processes  unless  it  is 
substantially  and  firmly  constructed,  and  adequately  supported,  and,  where  neces- 
sary, securely  fastened. 

No  truck  shall  be  used  for  carrying  cargo  between  ship  and  shore  on  a  stage 
so  steep  as  to  be  unsafe. 
Any  stage  .which  is  slippery  shall  be  made  safe  by  the  use  of  sand  or  otherwise. 

19.  Where  there  is  more  than  one  hatchway,  if  the  hatchway  of  a  hold  ex- 
ceeding seven  feet  six  inches  in  depth  measured  from  the  top  of  the  coamings 
to  the  bottom  of  the  hold  is  not  in  use  and  the  coamings  are  less  than  two  feet 
six  inches  in  height,  shall  either  be  fenced  to  a  height  of  three  feet,  or  be 
securely  covered. 

Provided  that  this  regulation  shall  not  apply  during  meal-times  or  other 
temporary  interruptions  of  work  during  the  period  of  employment. 

And  provided  that  until  the  1st  of  January,  1908,  the  fencing  may  be  the  best 
the  circumstances  will  allow  without  making  structural  alteration. 

Hatch  coverings  shall  not  be  used  in  connection  with  the  processes  in  the 
construction  of  deck  or  cargo  stages,  or  for  any  other  purpose  which  may 
expose  them  to  damage. 

20.  No  cargo  shall  be  loaded  by  a  fall  or  sling  at  any  intermediate  deck  unless 
a  secure  landing  platform  has  been  placed  across  the  hatchway  at  that  deck. 


21.  No  person  shall,  unless  duly  authorized,  or  in  case  of  necessity,  remove  or 
interfere  with  any  fencing,  gangway,  gear,  ladder,  life-saving  means  or  appliances, 
lights,  marks,  stages,  or  other  things  whatsoever,  required  by  these  regulations 
to  be  provided. 

22.  The  fencing  required  by  Regulation  1  shall  not  be  removed  except  to  the 
extent  and  for  the  period  reasonably  necessary  for  carrying  on  the  work  of  the 
dock  or  ship,  or  for  repairing  any  fencing.  If  removed  it  shall  be  restored  forth- 
with at  the  end  of  that  period  by  the  persons  engaged  in  the  work  that  neces- 
sitated its  removal. 


23.  No  employer  of  persons  in  the  processes  shall  allow  machinery  or  gear 


K>7 

to  be  used  by  such  persons  in  the  processes  that  does  not  comply  with  Part  III 
of  these  regulations. 

24.  If  the  persons  whose  duly  it  is  to  comply  with  Regulations  4,  5,  and  7  fail 
so  to  do,  then  it  shall  also  be  the  duty  of  the  employers  of  the  perfoni  I  mployed 
for  whose  use  the  means  of  access  and  the  lights  arc   required  to  comply   with 
the   said   regulation   within   the   shortest  time   reasonably   practicable   aff-i 
failure. 

25.  The  certificate  of  the  ship's  register  and  any  other  certificate  or  register 
referred  to  in  these  regulations  shall  be  produced  by  the  person  in  charge  thereof 
on  the  application  of  any  of  II.  M.  inspectors  of  factories. 

A.  Akers-Douglas, 
One  of  His  Majesty's  Principal  Secretaries  of  State. 
Home  Office,  Whitehall,  24th  October,  1904. 

Factory  Engines  and  Cars. 

Whereas  the  use  of  locomotives,  wagons,  and  other  rolling  stock  on  lines  of 
rail  or  sidings  in  any  factory  or  workshop  or  any  place  to  which  the  provisions 
of  section  79  of  the  Factory  and  Workshop  Act,  1901,  are  applied  by  that  act  or 
on  lines  of  rail  or  sidings  used  in  connection  with  any  factory,  or  workshop  or 
any  place  as  aforesaid,  and  not  being  part  of  a  railway  within  the  meaning  of  the 
Railway  Employment  (preventions  of  accidents)  Acts,  1900,  has  been  certified 
in  pursuance  of  the  said  section  to  be  dangerous : 

I  hereby  in  pursuance  of  the  powers  conferred  upon  me  by  that  act  make  the 
following  regulations  and  direct  that  they  shall  apply  to  all  places  before 
mentioned. 

These  regulations  shall  come  into  force  on  the  1st  day  of  January,  1907,  except 
Regulations  1,  2,  and  22,  which  shall  come  into  force  on  the  1st  day  of  January, 
1908. 

Subject  to  the  exemptions  below,  it  shall  be  the  duty  of — 

(i)  The  occupier  of  any  factory  or  workshop  and  any  place  to  which  any  of 
the  provisions  of  the  Factory  and  Workshop  Act,  1901,  are  applied,  and 

(«)  The  occupier  of  any  line  of  rails  or  sidings  used  in  connection  with  a 
factory  or  workshop,  or  with  any  place  to  which  any  of  the  provisions  of  the 
Factory  and  Workshop  Act,  190 1,  are  applied, 
to  comply  with  Part  I  of  these  regulations. 

And  it  shall  be  the  duty  of  every  person  who  by  himself,  his  agents  or  work- 
men, carries  on  any  of  the  operations  to  which  these  regulations  apply,  and  of  all 
agents,  workmen  and  persons  employed  to  -comply  with  Part  II  of  these 
regulations. 

And  it  shall  be  the  duty  of  every  person  who  by  himself,  his  agents,  or  work- 
men, carries  on  any  of  the  operations  to  which  these  regulations  apply,  to  comply 
with  Part  III  of  these  regulations. 

In  these  regulations : 

Line  of  rails  means  a  line  of  rails  or  sidings  for  the  use  of  locomotives  or 
wagons  except  such  lines  as  are  used  exclusively  for  (a)  a  gantry  crane  or  trav- 
eling crane,  or  (b)  any  charging  machine  or  other  apparatus  or  vehicle  used 
exclusively  in  or  about  any  actual  process  of  manufacture. 

Wagon  includes  any  wheeled  vehicle  or  non-self-moving  crane  on  a  line  of  rails. 

Locomotive  includes  any  wheeled  motor  on  a  line  of  rails  used  for  the  move- 
ment of  wagons  and  any  self-moving  crane. 

Gantry  means  an  elevated  structure  of  wood,  masonry,  or  metal,  exceeding  6 
feet  in  height  and  used  for  loading  or  unloading,  which  carries  a  line  of  rails, 
whereon  wagons  are  worked  by  mechanical  power. 

Nothing  in  these  regulations  shall  apply  to : 

(a)  A  line  of  rails  of  less  than  3  feet  gauge,  and  locomotives  and  wagons 
used  thereon. 

(b)  A  line  of  rails  not  worked  by  mechanical  power. 

(c)  A  line  of  rails  inside  a  railway  goods  warehouse. 

(d)  A  line  of  rails  forming  part  of  a  mine  within  the  meaning  of  the  Coal 
Mines  Regulation  Act,  1887,  or  of  a  quarry  within  the  meaning  of  the  Quarries 
Act,  1894,  not  being  a  line  of  rails  within  or  used  solely  in  connection  with  any 


1 68 

factory  or  workshop  not  incidental  to  the  maintenance  or  working  of  the  mine 
or  quarry  or  to  the  carrying  on  of  the  business  thereof. 

(e)  Pit  banks  of  mines  to  which  the  Metalliferous  Mines  Regulation  Act, 
1872,  applies,  and  private  lines  of  rails  used  in  connection  therewith. 

(/)  Lines  of  rails  used  in  connection  with  factories  or  workshops,  so  far  as 
they  are  outside  the  factory  or  workship  premises,  and  used  for  running  pur- 
poses only. 

(g)   Wagons  not  moved  by  mechanical  power. 

(/1)   Buildings  in  course  of  construction. 

(/)  Explosive  factories  or  workshops  within  the  meaning  of  the  Explosives 
Act,  1875. 

(/)  All  lines  and  sidings  on  or  used  in  connection  with  docks,  wharves  and 
quays  not  forming  part  of  a  factory  or  workshop  as  defined  in  section  149  of  the 
Factory  and  Workshop  Act,  1901. 

(k)  Wagon  or  locomotive  building  or  repairing  shops,  and  all  lines  and  sidings 
used  in  connection  with  such  shops  if  such  shops  are  in  the  occupation  of  a  rail- 
way company  within  the  meaning  of  the  Regulation  of  Railways  Act,  1871. 

(1)  Depots  or  car-sheds  being  parts  of  tramways  or  light  railway  undertak- 
ings authorized  by  Parliament,  and  used  for  the  storage,  cleaning,  inspection  or 
repair  of  tramway  cars  or  light  railway  cars. 


1.  Point  rods  and  signal  wires  in  such  a  position  as  to  be  a  source  of  danger 
to  persons  employed  shall  be  sufficiently  covered  or  otherwise  guarded. 

2.  Ground  levers  working  points  shall  be  so  placed  that  men  working  them 
are  clear  of  adjacent  lines,  and  shall  be  placed  in  a  position  parallel  to  the  ad- 
jacent lines,  or  in  such  other  position,  and  be  of  such  form  as  to  cause  as  little 
obstruction  as  possible  to  persons  employed. 

3.  Lines  of  rails  and  points  shall  be  periodically  examined  and  kept  in  efficient 
order,  having  regard  to  the  nature  of  the  traffic. 

4.  Every  gantry  shall  be  properly  constructed  and  kept  in  proper  repair.  It 
shall  have  a  properly  fixed  structure  to  act  as  a  stop-block  at  any  terminal  point; 
and  at  every  part  where  persons  employed  have  to  work  or  pass  on  foot  there 
shall  be  a  suitable  footway,  and  if  such  footway  is  provided  between  a  line  of 
rails  and  the  edge  of  the  gantry  the  same  shall  so  far  as  is  reasonably  practi- 
cable, having  regard  to  the  traffic  and  working,  be  securely  fenced  at  such  a  dis- 
tance from  the  line  of  rails  as  to  afford  a  reasonably  sufficient  space  for  such 
persons  to  pass  in  safety  between  the  fence  and  a  locomotive,  wagon  or  load  on 
the  line  of  rails. 

5.  Coupling  poles  or  other  suitable  mechanical  appliances  shall  be  provided 
where  required  for  the  purpose  of  Regulation  11. 

6.  Proper  sprags  and  scrotches  when  required  shall  be  provided  for  the  use 
of  persons  in  charge  of  the  movement  of  wagons. 

7.  Where  during  the  period  between  one  hour  after  sunset  and  one  hour  before 
sunrise,  or  in  foggy  weather,  shunting  or  any  operations  likely  to  cause  danger 
to  persons  employed  are  frequently  carried  on,  efficient  lighting  shall  be  provided 
either  by  hand  lamps  or  stationary  lights  as  the  case  may  require  at  all  points 
where  necessary  for  the  safety  of  such  persons. 

8.  The  mechanism  of  a  capstan  worked  by  power  and  used  for  the  purpose 
of  traction  of  wagons  on  a  line  of  rails  shall  be  maintained  in  efficient  condition 
and  if  operated  by  a  treadle  such  treadle  shall  be  tested  daily  before  use. 

PART   II. 

9.  When  materials  are  placed  within  3  feet  of  a  line  of  rails  and  persons  em- 
ployed are  exposed  to  risk  of  injury  from  traffic  by  having  to  pass  on  foot  over 
them  or  between  them  and  the  line  such  material  shall,  as  far  as  reasonably 
practicable,  be  so  placed  as  not  to  endanger  such  persons,  and  there  shall  be  ade- 
quate recesses  at  intervals  of  not  more  than  20  yards  where  the  materials  exceed 
that  length.  . 

10  No  person  shall  cross  a  line  of  rails  by  crawling  or  passing  underneath  a 
train  or  wagons  thereon  where  there  may  be  a  risk  of  danger  from  traffic. 


iGg 

11.  Locomotives  or  wagons  shall  wherever  it  is  reasonably  practicable  without 
structural  alterations  he  coupled  or  uncoupled  only  by  meant  of  a  coupling  pole 
or  other  suitable  mechanical  appliance,  except  where  the  construction  of  loco- 
motives or  wagons  is  such  that  coupling  or  uncoupling  ran  be  Safely  and  con- 
veniently performed  without  any  part  of  a  man's  body  being  within  the 
between  the  ends  or  buffers  of  one  locomotive  or  wagon  and  another. 

12.  Sprags  and  scratches  shall  be  used  as  and   when  they  are   required 

13.  Wagons  shall  not  be  moved  or  be  allowed  to  be  moved  on  a  line  of  rail . 
by  means  of  a  prop  or  pole,  or  by  means  of  towing  by  a  rope  fir  chain  attached 
to  a  locomotive  or  wagon  moving  on  an  adjacent  line  of  rails  when  other  rea- 
sonably practicable  means  can  be  adopted;  provided  that  this  shall  not  apply 
to  the  movement  of  ladles  containing  hot  material  on  a  line  of  rails  in  front  of 
and  adjacent  to  a  furnace. 

In  no  case  shall  props  be  used  for  the  above  purpose  unless  made  of  iron, 
steel,  or  strong  timber,  hooped  with  iron,  to  prevent  splitting. 

14.  Where  a  locomotive  pushes  more  than  one  wagon,  and  risk  of  injury  may 
thereby  be  caused  to  persons  employed,  a  man  shall,  wherever  it  is  safe  and  rea- 
sonably practicable,  accompany  or  precede  the  front  wagon  or  other  efficient 
means  shall  be  taken  to  obviate  such  risk. 

Provided  that  this  regulation  shall  not  apply  to  the  following : 

(a)  Fly  shunting. 

(b)  Movement  of  wagons  used  for  conveyance  of  molten  or  hot  material  or 
other  dangerous  substance. 

15.  No  person  shall  be  upon  the  buffer  of  a  locomotive  or  wagon  in  motion 
unless  there  is  a  secure  handhold  and  shall  not  stand  thereon  unless  there  is  also 
a  secure  footplace ;  nor  shall  any  person  ride  on  a  locomotive  or  wagon  by  means 
of  a  coupling  pole  or  other  like  appliance. 

16.  No  locomotive  or  wagon  shall  be  moved  on  a  line  of  rails  until  warning 
has  been  given  by  the  person  in  charge  to  persons  employed  whose  safety  is  likely 
to  be  endangered. 

Provided  that  this  regulation  shall  not  apply  to  a  self-moving  crane  within  a 
building  or  to  a  charging  machine  or  other  vehicle  so  long  as  it  is  used  in  or 
about  any  actual  process  of  manufacture. 

17.  Where  persons  employed  have  to  pass  on  foot  or  work,  no  locomotive  or 
wagon  shall  be  moved  on  a  line  of  rails  during  the  period  between  one  hour  after 
sunset  and  one  hour  before  sunrise,  or  in  foggy  weather,  unless  the  approaching 
end,  wherever  it  is  safe  and  reasonably  practicable,  is  distinguished  by  a  suitable 
light  or  accompanied  by  a  man  with  a  lamp. 

Provided  that  this  regulation  shall  not  apply  to  the  movement  of  locomotives 
or  wagons  within  any  area  which  is  efficiently  lighted  by  stationary  lights. 

18.  The  driver  in  charge  of  a  locomotive,  or  a  man  preceding  it  on  foot,  shall 
give  an  efficient  sound  signal  as  a  warning  on  approaching  any  level  crossing 
over  a  line  of  rails  .regularly  used  by  persons  employed,  or  any  curve  where 
sight  is  intercepted,  or  any  other  point  of  danger  to  persons  employed. 

19.  A  danger  signal  shall  be  exhibited  at  or  near  the  ends  of  any  wagon  or 
train  of  wagons  undergoing  repair  wherever  persons  employed  are  liable  to  be 
endangered  by  an  approaching  locomotive  or  wagon. 

20.  (a)  The  space  immediately  around  such  capstan  as  mentioned  in  Regula- 
tion 8  shall  be  kept  clear  of  all  obstruction. 

(b)  Such  capstan  shall  not  be  set  in  motion  until  signals  have  been  ex- 
changed between  the  man  in  charge  of  the  capstan  and  the  man  working  the 
rope  or  chain  attached  to  it. 

(c)  No  person  under  18  years  of  age  shall  work  such  capstan. 

21.  No  person  under  the  age  of  18  shall  be  employed  as  a  locomotive  driver, 
and  no  person  under  the  age  of  16  shall  be  employed  as  a  shunter. 


22.  All  glass  tubes  or  water  gauges  on  locomotives  or  stationary  boilers  used 
for  the  movement  of  wagons  shall  be  adequately  protected  by  a  covering  or  guard. 

H.  J.  Gladstone, 
One  of  His  Majesty's  Principal  Secretaries  of  State. 
Home  Office,  Whitehall,  24th  August,  1906. 


INDEX 


Page. 

Ablutions   107 

Abortions    23 

Accidents  and  injuries   61 

Accidents,  coal-mine    56 

Accidents  in  mills 26-27 

Accidents,   industrial    14,    125 

Accidents,    mining    57 

Accidents,  prevention  of 82 

Accidents,   railway    60 

Accident  statistics  55-61-62 

Acid,  hydrochloric   41 

Acid,  nitric   42 

Acid,  sulphuric   40,  42 

African    boxwood    22 

Air  space    16,  74 

Alcohol  habit   15,  71 

Alcohol,  wood   46,  47,  48 

Alkali  works    41 

Ammonia    42 

Aniline  dyes   46 

Aniline  vapor,  poisoning  by 47,  48 

Animal  dust  28 

Anthrax  infection    30,  125 

Antimony    142 

Arsenic  39,  142,  143 

Arsenical  dust  39 

Arsenical   fumes    50 

Arsenical  poisoning 125,  126 

Artificial  light 81 

Bakers   22,  52 

Ba  rometers    50 

Baths  and  bathing 107 

Beds  and   bedding 111 

Bed  hours   112 

Beet-sugar    industry    52 

Bell  metal  144 

Belting   55 

Benzine    44 

Bisulphide  of  Carbon 149 

Black  lung    58 

Blacksmiths    52 

Bleachers    13,  43 

Bleaching  establishments   43 

Blindness    56 

Body,   care   of no 

Boiler  explosions    55 

Boiler  makers'  deafness 54 

Boils    106 

Bone    28-29 

Bookbinders    13 

Bottling  aerated  water 162 

Boots    1 10 

Bowels    114 

Boxwood,  African    22 

Brakemen    61 


Pact 

I'.rass    foundry 21,  144 

Brass   founders    13 

Brass  founders'  ague \<> 

Brick    making    126 

Bristles,  hogs'    29 

Bronchitis    58 

Bronze    144 

Bronzing    50 

Bronzing  powders    20 

Bromine    43 

Brush   making    29 

Brushes,   wire    2\ 

Byssinosis    25 

Cabinet  makers    22 

Caisson  disease   53 

Candle  factories    63 

Carbon    149 

Carbonic-acid   gas    45 

Carbon  dioxide    45 

Carbon   disulphide    45 

Carbon  monoxide   45 

Cars    167 

Care  of  special  organs  or  parts  of 

the  body    H3 

Carelessness    55 

Carpet  factories    27 

Cats 105 

Catarrh,  bronchial    41 

Carpenters     22 

Celluloid  industry  28 

Charcoal  men    22 

Chemical   works    145 

Child  labor   64,  66 

Chimney    sweeps 22 

China       manufacture,       decoration. 

scouring    *34 

Chlorine  gas  43 

Choke  damp   58 

Chrome  pigments    49 

Cigar  and  cigarette  factories 23 

Circular  saws    55 

Clothing    108 

Clothing,  cause  of  disease 109 

Coal  gas    45 

Coal-mine  accidents  56 

Coal  miners    22 

Coal  oil  stoves 104 

Coca-bola    SB 

Cold    S* 

Colors 34.  143 

Compensation    138.  139 

Compositors    13 

Consumption    17.  26.  58.  71 

Colic,  lead  32.  uS.  119 

Constipation    114 


172 


Page. 

Cooks    52 

Cooking    100 

Cooking  utensils    104 

Compressed  air  '. 53 

Copper    46 

Coppersmiths    13 

Corundum    22 

Cotton   dust    25 

Cotton  and   flax  textiles 23 

Cubic  air  space 74 

Curlers    24 

Cutters,    file    19 

Cutlery    19 

Dampness    52 

Dangerous   industries    125,    127 

Debility    25 

Deafness    54 

Defective  vision    73 

Delta  metal    144 

Derby  hats    28 

Digestive   disorders    17 

Di-nitro-compounds    46,    148 

Diseases  in  factories  and  workshops.    125 

Disinfection,   spittoons    122 

Docks     163 

Dogs    105 

Down  quilts   1 1 1 

Dreams     113 

Dressing  room  131 

Dust,    animal    17,   28 

Dust,   arsenical    39 

Dust,  bone    28 

Dust,  cotton   25 

Dust,  flax    25 

Dust,   horn    28 

Dust,   household    103 

Dust,  infectious    18,  26 

Dust,    irritating     16 

Dust,  lead   31 

Dust,   mercurial    50 

Dust,   metallic    17,    18 

Dust,  mica    20 

Dust,    mineral    17,    18 

Dust,  mixed    17,   125 

Dust,  vegetable    17 

Dyeing  and  cleansing 46 

Dyes,   aniline    46 

Dyestuff  s    46 

Ear,    care    of 115 

Earthenware  works  126,  134 

Eating  houses    100 

Eating   utensils    104 

Eczema    49 

Electric  accumulators    140 

Electric  batteries    5° 

Electrotypers    13 

Emergency   room    125 

Emery  and  emery  wheels 21,  22 

Employment  of  women  and  children.    64 

Enameling    143 

Engravers    54 

Engines    167 


Page. 

Eyes,  care  of 115 

Hxplosives 13.   47,    52,    148 

Expositions    devoted    to    industrial 

and  social  betterment 85 

Factories,  carpet  and  rug 27 

Factories,  cigars  and  cigarette 23 

Factories,    felt    hat 29 

Factory     and     working     act,     Eng- 
land     125,  5 

Fan    125 

Fatigue    25,    72 

Feather   beds    Ill 

Federal  Government    86 

Felt  hats   28,  29,  153 

Felt   establishments    5° 

Fertilizer  making   63 

File  cutters   13,  19,  32 

File   cutting    160 

Finishers   of   plates 1 16 

Firemen   13,  22,  52 

Fire  damp  58 

Flat  feet  25,  65 

Flax    23,    25 

Fly,  cotton    25 

Food  for  working  classes 100 

Footwear    no 

Founders    35 

Founders,   brass 49 

Foundries,  brass   21 

Foundries,    iron     21 

Foundries,    stove    21 

Foundries,  type   117 

Fumes,  arsenical  50 

Fumes,  lead    33 

Fumes,  poisonous   40 

Fur    29 

Galling    106 

Galvanizing  works    41 

Gas 125 

Gas,  carbonic-acid    45 

Gas,  chlorine    43 

Gasoline    40,   104 

Gas   stoves    104 

Gases,  poisonous  4° 

Gas  works,  employees 13 

Gem   finishers    20 

German   printing   houses. 37 

Glass    126 

Glazing    125 

Glue   factories    63 

Government  printing  office 116 

Grain  elevators  and  threshers 22 

Grinders,  metal    19.  I25 

Gun  metal   144 

Gunny    cloth    27 

Hair,  curled   29,  30 

Hair   sorting    155 

Head    dress    109 

Heat    52 

Hemp    27 

Hide  depots   63 

Hides    154 


'7 '3 


Pagk. 

Hogs'  bristles    29 

Home    102 

Home  factories   73 

Homes    for    wage-earners 07 

Horn    29 

I  louse  cleaning  km 

Household    dust    103 

Household   pets    105 

Humidity  of  the  air 79 

Hygiene,    industrial    9 

1  [ygiene,  personal    101 

Hypochondry     114 

Indoor  occupations    15 

Industrial  accidents   14 

Industrial  betterment   85,  94 

Industrial  diseases    14 

Industrial   insurance    87 

Industrial   phthisis    25 

Infant  mortality   in    relation   to   the 

occupation  of  women 68 

Infectious  dust   26,  29 

Illumination    73 

India  rubber  149 

Injuries    61 

Insanitary    houses    and    overcrowd- 
ing        97 

Insects    104 

Inspection    of    factories 129 

Insurance,  industrial    87 

Invalid  and  old  age  pensions 89 

Iodine    43 

Iron  and  iron  foundries 21,  46 

Irritating    dust.    16 

Ivory    29 

Joiners    22 

Jute    27 

Kitchens     100 

Kitchen   utensils    104 

Knock-knee   54.  65 

Labor   legislation    10 

Lead  colic    32,   118,   119 

Lead  dust   31 

Lead   fumes    33 

Lead  pipe    33 

Lead  poisoning   32,  119,   125,  126 

Lead  smelters    32 

Lead  works  129  to  133 

Leaky  downspouts    102 

Leaky  roofs    102 

Lighting    80 

Linen    spinners    24 

Lithograhphers   54 

Lodging       houses       and       sleeping 

quarters    85 

Machinery   supplies    20 

Malaria    105 

Manganese   49 

Manilla  mixture    144 

Masons    56 

Match  workers    13 

Matches,  manufacture  of.... 51,  126.  150 
Measures     for     the     protection     of 


Pax* 

w^kc  earnen    72 

Mercury    

Mercury,  cyanide  of 2H 

Mercury    dust    50 

Mercurial   poisoning    125 

Metallic    dust     iH 

Metal  grinden ig 

Metal    luppliei  

Metal   workers    56 

Miners    56 

Mica  dust   20 

Mill  hands   24 

Millers    22 

Mills,  shoddy    28 

Mill   towns    26 

Mills,  woolen    23 

Millstone   cutting    20 

Miners  56 

Mining  accidents    57 

Mineral    dust    18 

Mirror  makers  50,  126 

Miscarriages    50 

Morbidity    and    mortality   of    wage- 
earners    10,    12 

Morbidity  and  mortality  of  printers.  35 

Mosquitoes    105 

Mules,  self-acting  162 

Naphtha    46 

Neck   109 

Needle  polishers   19 

Nitrobenzol    46 

Nondusty  trades  workers 17 

Nose,  care  of 115 

Occupations  and  mortality 10,  13 

Occupations,      dangerous,      English 

regulation  of 125-169 

Occupations,    indoor    15 

Occupations     involving    constrained 

attitudes    54 

Occupations    involving    exposure    to 

infective  matter  in  dust 29 

Occupations    involving    exposure   to 

irritating  dust   16 

Occupations    involving    exposure    to 

machinery    55 

Occupations  involving  over  exercise 

of  parts  of  the  body 54 

Occupations  involving  the  inhalation 

of  organic  gases  and  vapors 63 

Occupation    of    women,    relation    to 

infant   mortality    68 

Offensive  trades    63 

Organic    gases    and    vapors,    inhalation 

of 63 

Overcrowding   97 

Overwork    25,    72 

Paints 34.  143 

Paper   industry    30 

Paris  green  34 

Parrots    105 

Patent  leather  industry 47 

Pensions,  invalid  and  old  age 89 


174 


Page. 

Petroleum    44 

Phosphor  bronze    144 

Phosphorus    51,  150 

Phosphorous,  white  and  red 51 

Phosphorus    poisoning    125 

Photometer  82 

Pigeons   105 

Pigments,  chrome  49 

Pillows,   feather    Ill 

Pimples    106 

Plumbers'  supplies   33 

Pneumonia    17 

"Pneumonie  cotonneuse"   25 

Poisoning,  lead  32,  119 

Poisonous  gases    40 

Polishers    19,  20,  49,  125 

Polisher's    itch    49 

Porters    61 

Potassium    146 

Potters   13 

Pottery  industry   32 

Poultry 105 

Prevention  of  accidents 82 

Printers    35 

Privies    83 

Propulsion  and  aspiration  system...  76 

Prussian  blue    34 

Public  duties    95 

Public  speakers   54 

Quarrymen    20 

Quinine   49 

Rag  industry  29,  30 

Rag  sorters'   disease   3° 

Railway  service   59 

Railway  accidents  60 

Red  lead  factory 33 

Reelers   24 

Regulation     of     dangerous     trades, 

England   125  to  169 

Regulations       controlling       printing 

houses    37 

Rentals    97 

Respirators    52,  I01 

Roosevelt,  President    86 

Rubber  factory  operatives 13 

Rubber  industry   47 

Rug  factories  27 

Safety  devices  51,  101 

Sal  ammoniac    41 

Sandpaper   22 

Sanitation  of  workshops  and  quar- 
ters for  employees 73 

Sanitary  conveniences  83 

Scheele's  green   39 

Sewer  air   63 

Sheep   dip    39 

Shell    29 

Shoes    no 

Shoemakers   54 

Shoddy  mills    28 

Silk 29 

Silvering  of  mirrors 126 


Page. 

Singers    54 

Skin,  care  of 106 

Skins    154 

Slate   cutting    20 

Sleep    in 

Sleeping  quarters   85 

Smelters,  lead   32 

Smelters,   zinc    32 

Smoking     32 

Soap  factories   63 

Social   conditions    96 

Social  betterment   97 

Sodium    146 

Soldiers'  iiome,  Washington 93 

Special  measures  for  the  prevention 
of  tuberculosis  among  wage- 
earners    71 

Spinners    24 

Spitting  habit  23 

Spittoons,  disinfection   122 

Steel   foundries    21 

Stereotyping   116 

Stokers    52 

Stonecutters    13,    19,   20 

Stoves,  coal  oil  or  gas 104 

Stove  foundries    21 

Sugar  of  lead 31 

Sulphur   dioxide    40 

Sunstroke    52 

Swimming  baths   107 

Tailors    54 

Tanneries    63 

Tea  tasters   55 

Teeth,  care  of 113 

Temperature   78,  104 

Tenement   factories  and  houses....  127 

Textiles,  flax   23 

Textile    mills 26 

Theine  intoxication    55 

Thermometers    50 

Threshers,  grain    20,  23 

Tiles    126 

Tinning    143 

Tobacco    23 

Tobacco    testers    55 

Tow   spinning    158 

Track  walkers  59 

Tuberculosis 17,  26,  58,  71 

Tuberculosis,  prevention   of 71 

Turkish  baths    107 

Turpentine    44 

Type  foundries  116,  117 

Typesetters    35 

Unhealthy  industries   125 

Uterine  derangements   25 

Uterine   displacements    25 

Urinals 83 

Varicose  veins  54 

Varnishes    34 

Ventilation 75 

Wage-earners,   morbidity   and   mor- 
tality of  12 


'75 


Page. 

Wage-earners,  protection  of 71,  72 

Washington    Sanitary    Improvement 

Company    99 

Waste    products    72 

Watchmakers   54 

Water  closets   83 

Weavers    24,  54,  56 

Weaving   158 

Wet-spinning    126 

Welfare  of  employees 93,  101 

Wharves   163 

Wheels,  emery  21 

White  lead  workers 13,  126,  129 

Winders    24 

Wind  instruments   54 

Wire  brushes   21 


I'a'.k 

Wire   cloth    34 

Wire  making    34 

Women    and   children,   employment 

of  64 

Wood,   hard    22 

Wood,   soft    22 

Wood  alcohol    46,  48 

"Wool  sorters'  "  disease 30 

Wool  sorting   155 

Woolen   mills    23 

Workshop  act,  England 125 

Workshop   and   quarters,    sanitation 

of   73 

Yellow   fever    105 

Zinc  smelters   32 


7-  3  y^t  &U>v/!&A/  \ 


